UNIVERSITY  FARM 


T4- 


PROFITABLE 
DAIRYING 


A    PRACTICAL    GUIDE    TO    SUC- 
CESSFUL DAIRY  MANAGEMENT 


BY 

C0   L.   PECK 


ILLUSTRATED 


NEW      YORK 

ORANGE    JUDD     COMPANY 
1910 


COPYRIGHT   1906 
BY  ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 


Printed  in  U.  S.  A. 


CONTENTS 


Preface  * 

I.  A  Model  Dairy  Farm         I 

II.  Importance  of  the  Dairy 21 

III.  Physiology  and  Secretion  of  Milk 23 

IV.  The  Future  of  Dairying .  27 

V.  Dairy  Breeds 31 

Jerseys,  Guernseys,         Ayrshires, 

Holstein  Friesians,  Shorthorns. 

VI.  Selection  of  a  Breed 56 

VII.  The  Dairy  Cow  and  the  Dairy  Sire 63 

VIII.  Dairy  Standard 69 

IX.  Feed  of  the  Dairy  Cow 73 

X.  Care  of  the  Cow 80 

XL  Milking 83 

XII.  When  to  have  Cows  come  fresh 87 

XIII.  Feeds  and  their  Value 90 

XIV.  Care  of  Milk 93 

XV.  Device  for  Ripening  Cream 104 

XVI.  Churning 112 

XVII.  Marketing  Dairy  Butter 118 

XVIII.  The  Dairy  Barn 122 

XIX.  Silo  and  Silage 132 

XX.  Miscellaneous  Topics •     .     .     .  136 

XXI.  Necessary  Appliances v  143 

XXII.  General  Hints ,     ,     ....  156 

XXIII.  Dairy  Remedies .     .     0     .     .  164 


202574 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIG.  PAOB 

The  Author Frontispiece 

Rev.  J.  D.  Detrich I 

3.  Mr.  Detrich's  Barn  and  Stables 17 

4.  Jersey  Cow,  "  Loretta  D  "  .     .,...,...     33 

5.  Jersey  Bull,  "  Interested  Prince  " 36 

6.  Guernsey  Cow,  "Imp.  Hayes  Rosie  " 38 

7.  Guernsey  Bull,  "  Prince  Rosendale  " 40 

8.  Ayrshire  Cow,  "  Durwood  " 43 

9.  Ayrshire  Bull,  "  Lucinda's  Boy" 45 

10.  Holstein  Friesian  Bull,  "  Hengerveld  De  Kol"     .     .     47 

11.  Holstein  Friesian  Cow,  "  Jollie  Johanna  "    ....     49 

12.  Typical  Shorthorn  Cow 51 

13.  Typical  Shorthorn  Bull 53 

14.  Jersey-Guernsey  Cow,  "  Daisey  " 65 

15.  Ayrshire  Bull,  "John  Webb" .     .     67 

16.  Cooley  Elevator  Creamer 94 

17.  De  Laval  Cream  Separator 95 

18.  U.  S.  Cream  Separator ,     ....     96 

19.  Front  View  of  Cream  Ripener 106 

20.  Side  View  of  Cream  Ripener 108 

21.  Cream  Agitator no 

22.  Davis  Swing  Churn 113 

23.  Skinner  Butter  Worker 143 

24.  Reversible  Butter  Worker 144 

25.  Ladle 145 

26.  Straight  Paddle , 145 

27.  Dairy  Thermometer 146 

28.  Floating  Thermometer 146 

29.  Peck's  Milking  Stool 149 

30.  Original  Babcock  Test 151 

31.  Veneer  Wrapper,  open 157 

32.  Veneer  Wrapper,  closed 157 

33.  Butter  Print  Carrier 158 

34.  Eureka  Butter  Printer 159 

vii 


PREFACE 


THE  last  two  decades  have  witnessed  greater 
changes  and  more  material  improvements  than  any 
previous  century.  When  these  improvements  will 
have  so  far  progressed  as  to  render  further  change 
unnecessary  no  man  can  predict.  Manufacturers  to- 
day are  compelled  to  recognize  these  changes  in  their 
business  and  adjust  the  cost  of  production  so  as  to 
meet  the  changed  conditions,  or  they  must  go  out  of 
business.  The  farmer  is  now  buying  for  forty-five 
dollars  a  better  mowing  machine  than  could  be  put  on 
the  market  thirty-five  years  ago  for  one  hundred  dol- 
lars. These  remarkable  changes  are  common  to 
nearly  all  industries. 

The  time  is  comparatively  recent  when  farming 
was  regarded  as  a  business  requiring  little  or  no 
previous  preparation  to  be  successfully  conducted, 
and  was  followed  by  a  class  of  men  who  considered 
themselves  qualified  for  nothing  else  and  who  selected 
it  as  a  business  more  from  necessity  than  from  choice. 
In  fact,  in  many  localities  this  idea  still  prevails. 
The  young  man  who  thought  he  had  a  gift  for  me- 
chanics, or  a  capacity  for  mastering  some  one  of  the 
professions,  considered  himself  fortunate  in  not  being 
obliged  to  live  on  the  farm. 

Competition  was  largely  a  question  of  local  mar- 
kets. The  only  qualification  regarded  as  necessary 
was  a  knowledge  of  the  business  equal  to  that  pos- 
sessed by  others  of  the  same  locality.  All  that  is  now 


X  PREFACE 

changed.  Not  only  is  the  modern,  up-to-date  farmer 
learning  how  to  make  two  blades  of  grass  grow 
where  but  one  grew  before,  but  he  is  also  learning 
how  to  do  so  at  half  the  previous  cost.  He  has 
learned  that  he  is  called  upon  to  meet  a  competition 
of  which  his  father  knew  nothing.  Steam  and  elec- 
tricity, the  telegraph  and  the  telephone,  have  brought 
the  ends  of  the  earth  into  such  juxtaposition  that  the 
producer  of  to-day  is  brought  into  competition  with 
producers  in  the  same  line  from  every  part  of  the 
earth.  The  day  when  farming  could  be  followed  on 
indifferent  methods  with  success  has  passed  away. 
Farming  has  become  a  profession.  It  requires  as 
high  a  degree  of  scientific  and  business  knowledge  to 
conduct  it  successfully  as  any  of  the  various  kinds  of 
business  in  which  men  engage  for  a  livelihood,  and 
from  which  they  extract  all  the  success,  happiness, 
and  pleasure  that  comes  to  them  in  this  world. 

State  agricultural  colleges,  State  and  National  ex- 
periment stations  have  opened  up  avenues  of  special 
preparation  for  the  profession  of  agriculture  not 
available  to  our  fathers.  They  offer  to  the  farmer 
boy  an  opportunity  to  fit  himself,  tuition  free,  for  his 
life  work  equal  to  that  opened  to  any  other  class. 
Josh  Billings'  advice  to  his  son  "  Seek  to  know  some- 
thing of  everything  and  everything  of  something  "  is 
no  longer  applicable.  In  his  time  the  curricula  of  our 
colleges  sought  to  cover  a  general  knowledge  of 
many  things.  We  live  now  in  an  age  of  specialties. 
The  college  curriculum  shows  this.  To  complete  the 
special  courses  taught  in  any  of  our  great  universities 
would  require  continuous  study  for  more  than  one 
hundred  and  fifty  years.  Safer  advice  nowadays  than 


PREFACE  Xi 

Josh  Billings'  would  be:  "  Seek  to  know  all  that  par- 
ticular branch  of  the  something  in  which  you  are  en- 
gaged." To  possess  as  great  and  general  a  knowl- 
edge as  is  practicable  to  obtain  is  desirable.  A  com- 
plete knowledge  of  the  business  one  is  to  follow  is  to 
the  highest  degree  important.  But  it  is  not  possible 
to  obtain  all  this  from  any  one  source;  no  instructor 
knows  it  all. 

The  writer  does  not  for  one  moment  imagine  that 
he  will  be  able  in  this  volume  to  condense  all  that  is 
worth  knowing  on  the  broad  subject  of  dairying. 
New  ideas  and  improved  methods  are  being  devel- 
oped every  day.  Each  writer  should  be  able  to  add 
to  the  work  of  his  predecessors  some  new  and  val- 
uable information.  Nothing  is  more  natural  than 
the  desire  to  know  the  sources  of  information  of 
those  who  attempt  to  appear  in  the  character  of  in- 
structors, whether  as  writers  or  speakers.  The  fol- 
lowing will  serve  in  some  degree  to  gratify  this  de- 
sire, so  far  as  the  writer  of  this  book  is  concerned. 

My  father  was  one  of  the  pioneer  farmers  of 
northern  Pennsylvania.  I  was  born  and  reared  on 
the  farm.  My  earliest  recollections  are  connected 
with  the  clearing  of  the  land,  the  logging  up  and 
burning  of  fallows.  At  the  death  of  my  father  the 
farm  upon  which  I  was  born  fell  into  my  hands,  and 
I  was  compelled  to  make  a  study  of  the  subject  of 
agriculture.  About  1895  I  became  a  lecturer  on 
agriculture  in  Pennsylvania,  and  from  that  time  until 
the  winter  of  1902-3  spent  much  of  the  institute  sea- 
son among  the  farmers  of  the  State.  From  my  asso- 
ciates and  the  farmers  with  whom  I  was  brought  in 
contact  in  this  work,  as  well  as  from  my  own  per- 


Xll  PREFACE 

sonal  experience,  I  acquired  information  which  I  en- 
deavored to  put  into  practical  use  in  the  dairy  on  my 
farm,  which  is  run  as  a  dairy  and  stock  farm,  stocked 
with  the  best  Ayrshire  and  Jersey  cattle  and  their 
crosses  that  I  could  find  or  breed. 

In  this  little  volume  I  have  sought  to  emphasize 
rule  and  system  as  productive  of  accurate  and  correct 
results,  and  to  give  such  practical  hints  on  dairying 
as  will  enable  the  reader  to  improve'  his  methods, 
better  his  condition,  and  more  nearly  attain  that  point 
in  his  business  known  as  success.  If  I  have  succeed- 
ed in  presenting  new  ideas  or  methods  that  will  in 
any  way  tend  to  lighten  the  burden  of  the  farmer, 
advance  the  profession  of  farming,  or  elevate  social 
standing  or  aspirations,  this  work  will  have  accom- 
plished the  purposes  for  which  it  was  designed. 

C.  L.  PECK. 

Coudersportj  Pa.,  1906. 


PROFITABLE    DAIRYING 


CHAPTER  I 


A    MODEL    DAIRY    FARM 


J.   D.   DETRICH 


THE  American  Agriculturist  of 
New  York,  published  the  first  com- 
plete account  of  the  remarkable 
dairy  farm  of  the  Rev.  ].  D.  Det- 
rich,  in  Montgomery  County,  Pa., 
in  the  vicinity  of  Philadelphia.  In 
a  recent  letter,  Prof.  W.  G.  John- 
son told  the  author  that  his  atten- 
tion was  first  called  to  this  farm 
by  a  friend  while  he  was  attending 
a  meeting  of  the  Philadelphia  Milk 
Shippers'  Union  in  August,  1902.  He  then  arranged 
with  Mr.  Detrich  to  visit  the  farm  that  fall,  and  wrote 
up  the  story  which  appeared  in  the  American  Agricul- 
turist, December  6  and  13,  1902.  Never,  perhaps,  has 
the  description  of  any  farm  caused  a  more  profound 
sensation  in  the  agricultural  world  than  did  this  series 
of  articles.  This  dominie  was  doing  on  fifteen  acres 
with  a  dairy  herd  what  most  farmers  could  not 
accomplish  on  one  hundred. 
The  story  was  copied  from  the  American  Agricul- 


2  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

turist  in  many  languages,  and  government  experts 
and  men  from  all  over  the  country  flocked  to  see  the 
place  and  the  remarkable  man  who  had  accomplished 
such  marvelous  results.  As  the  issues  of  the  Ameri- 
can Agriculturist  containing  this  series  of  articles 
have  long  since  been  out  of  print,  the  entire  descrip- 
tion of  this  now  world-famed  dairy  is  reprinted  here- 
with by  special  request.  In  passing,  however,  it 
should  be  said  that  Dr.  Detrich  is  now  general  man- 
ager and  superintendent  of  "  Harvest  Home  Farm/' 
the  property  of  C.  S.  Kates,  of  Chester  County,  Pa. 
He  is  improving  this  old  and  sadly  neglected  place  of 
three  hundred  and  forty  acres,  of  which  eighty-six 
acres  are  in  timber,  and  is  putting  into  practice  the 
same  lines  of  intensive  culture,  on  a  large  scale,  that 
were  followed  on  his  diminutive  place  near  Phila- 
delphia. 

The  following  account  of  this  model  dairy  farm  is 
reproduced  herewith  by  courtesy  of  the  American 
Agriculturist: 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE  OF  THE  FARM 

One  of  the  most  interesting  dairy  farms  in  America 
is  located  in  Montgomery  County,  Pa.,  near  Philadel- 
phia, and  is  owned  and  managed  by  the  Rev.  J.  D. 
Detrich.  This  farm  is  all  the  more  remarkable  in 
that  it  represents  perhaps  one  of  the  best  illustrations 
of  intensive  culture  and  management  in  this  country. 
On  fifteen  acres  a  herd  of  twenty-seven  dairy  cattle, 
in  addition  to  two  horses,  are  now  maintained.  All 
the  roughage,  litter,  bedding,  etc.,  necessary  for  these 
animals  is  grown  on  this  place.  There  has  been  no 
attempt  to  make  a  big  display  in  buildings  and  other 


A  MODEL  DAIRY  FARM  3 

equipment,  but  the  ordinary  farm  buildings,  such  as 
are  seen  on  the  average  farm  in  this  country,  are  in 
use. 

The  simplicity  of  the  buildings  and  equipment,  to- 
gether with  the  general  surroundings,  make  this  one 
of  unusual  interest  to  the  farmer  of  small  means. 
Here  has  been  developed  one  of  the  most  intensive 
systems  of  culture  and  rotation  in  farm  crops  for  the 
feeding  of  dairy  animals  that  can  be  found  at  any 
place.  The  feeding  and  management  of  the  herd  has 
been  systematized  and  regulated  to  a  degree  of  pro- 
ficiency that  can  not  be  excelled  at  any  experimental 
station.  The  work  on  this  place  is  carried  on  by  one 
man  and  a  small  boy,  with  the  exception  of  the  harvest 
season,  when  other  help  is  secured  for  gathering  the 
crops.  One  man  handles  the  herd  and  attends  to  the 
feeding,  as  well  as  looking  after  other  small  details 
about  the  farm.  The  herd  at  present  consists  of  six- 
teen cows  in  full  flow  of  milk,  two  young  bulls,  and 
nine  head  of  young  cattle,  in  addition  to  two  horses. 
They  are  all  comfortably  housed  in  an  ordinary 
stable. 

One  notable  thing  is  the  quietness,  docile,  and  con- 
tented air  of  the  cattle  in  their  stalls.  After  walking 
around  the  barn  twice,  the  writer  heard  no  noise  from 
within  that  would  indicate  the  presence  of  even  a 
single  animal.  The  arrangement  and  interior  of  the 
barn  have  been  adjusted  to  meet  the  conditions,  in 
the  most  inexpensive  way,  for  producing  milk  and 
handling  the  herd  in  accordance  with  the  highest  and 
most  perfect  system  of  sanitation.  Entering  the 
stable,  one  is  impressed  with  the  wholesomeness  of 
the  atmosphere,  particularly  where  so  many  animals 


4  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

are  kept  together  in  such  small  quarters.  The  stab! 
was  free  from  all  objectionable  odors,  and  the  appeal 
ance  of  the  animals  was  conclusive  evidence  that  the 
were  not  only  enjoying  their  comfortable  quarter 
but  their  bright  eyes,  loose  skin,  and  sleek  appeal 
ance,  were  suggestive  of  their  most  healthful  cond 
tion.  The  snowy  white  walls  and  ceilings,  and  sen 
pulously  clean  cement  floors  between  the  aisles  an 
at  the  rear  of  the  stalls,  gave  the  whole  place  an  a 
of  neatness  rarely  seen  in  the  best-equipped  stable 
where  much  is  expended  for  that  purpose.  In  th 
instance,  all  has  been  accomplished  at  little  cost  i 
money  outlay.  What  has  been  done  here  can  t 
repeated  on  other  farms  at  very  little  cash  outlay. 

A  WALK  OVER  THE  FARM 

The  walk  over  the  farm,  in  company  with  M 
Detrich,  was  quite  as  pleasing  as  the  stay  in  the  dair 
barn.  As  the  American  Agriculturist  representath 
passed  the  various  plots  on  the  small  farm,  a  piece  c 
clover,  seeded  August  20,  about  three  months  sine 
was  carefully  examined.  It  was  as  thick  on  th 
ground  as  the  hair  on  a  dog's  back,  and  matted  unde 
one's  feet  like  the  nap  on  a  velvet  carpet.  The  d< 
tails  about  the  cultural  methods  of  seeding  and  cu 
ting  were  interesting.  Three  crops  a  year  are  take 
from  this  field,  said  Mr.  Detrich.  The  soil  of  tli 
adjoining  plot,  from  which  the  silage  corn  was  take 
last  fall,  was  as  loose  and  pliable  as  though  it  ha 
just  been  gone  over  and  torn  in  pieces  with  a  stron 
tooth  harrow.  There  was  an  entire  absence  of  weed 
and,  from  appearances,  the  land  was  in  perfect  cor 
dition  for  the  reception  of  another  crop  without  fui 


A  MODEL  DAIRY  FARM  5 

ther  working,  yet  it  had  not  been  touched  with  an 
implement  of  any  kind  since  the  crop  of  corn  had 
been  laid  by.  The  adjoining  two  and  one-half  acre 
meadow,  from  which  thirteen  big  two-horse  loads  of 
hay  were  taken,  was  as  complete  a  mass  of  vegetable 
growth  as  was  seen  in  the  clover  field.  This  was 
thickly  covered  with  freshly  made  manure,  hauled 
from  the  stables  daily. 

"  This  field,"  said  Mr.  Detrich,  "  will  be  plowed  in 
the  spring  and  put  in  corn,  a  part  of  which  will  be 
used  later  for  filling  my  two  silos  of  sixty  tons  each." 

The  representative  of  the  American  Agriculturist 
asked  Mr.  Detrich  how  long  he  had  owned  this  prop- 
erty, and  when  he  began  dairy  operations  on  an  in- 
tensive and  extensive  scale,  to  which  he  replied  as 
follows : 

"  I  came  in  possession  of  this  place  about  twenty 
years  ago,  at  which  time  I  knew  little  or  nothing  about 
dairying,  or  general  farm  operations.  In  fact,  I  had 
only  a  vague  idea  of  the  value  and  practical  utility 
of  cattle,  and  knew  less  about  crops.  My  knowledge 
of  feeding  was  very  limited,  and  the  value  of  dairy 
products  and  individual  animals  had  never  been  con- 
sidered by  me  in  any  especial  way.  In  1882  this  farm 
maintained  one  horse  and  two  cows,  the  latter  being 
thoroughbred  Jerseys,  both  of  which  were  registered. 
One  died,  and  the  other  cow  was  retained  and  bred 
from  year  to  year,  forming  the  basis  of  my  present 
herd.  My  first  business  experience  in  dairying  was 
the  sale  of  a  fine  bull  calf  for  $50.  The  mother  of 
this  bull  was  a  remarkable  cow,  and  one  of  her 
heifers,  when  twenty-two  months  old,  made  nine  and 
one-half  pounds  of  butter  in  one  week,  besides  fur- 


O  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

nishing  milk  and  cream  for  a  family  of  five.  I  found 
ready  market  for  this  butter  at  42  cents  a  pound,  and 
could  have  sold  much  more  if  I  could  have  furnished 
it.  This  cow,  registered  No.  2028  in  the  American 
Jersey  Herdbook,  bred  seven  heifer  calves  in  succes- 
sion. From  two  of  these  cows  and  three  heifers  with 
their  first  calves,  I  sold  sixty-five  quarts  of  new  milk, 
had  cream  to  use  for  a  family  of  five,  besides  making 
and  selling  1565  pounds  of  butter  during  the  year. 
Thus  encouraged,  I  began  a  more  careful  study  of 
dairying,  and  soon  found  there  was  opportunity  for 
many  improvements  on  my  farm." 

SOILING  AND   SILAGE 

"  Your  perfect  system  of  soiling  must  have  been 
developed  only  after  a  most  careful  study  of  your 
surroundings,  and  a  close  application  to  the  princi- 
ples worked  out  by  others  ?  " 

"At  first  the  soiling  problem  was  more  puzzling  to 
me  than  the  management  of  the  dairy  herd.  Through 
the  splendid  bulletins  issued  by  our  agricultural  ex- 
periment stations  and  colleges,  and  a  most  careful 
study  of  'Josiah  Quincy  on  the  Soiling  of  Cattle,' 
which  was  the  best  work  I  could  find  at  that  time  on 
the  subject,  I  laid  the  foundation  for  my  farming 
operations.  This  book  by  Quincy  has  since  been 
superseded  by  more  recent,  up-to-date  works  by  Prof. 
Thomas  Shaw  on  '  Soiling  Crops  and  the  Silo/  and 
'Forage  Crops  Other  Than  Grasses/  But  with 
Quincy  as  my  guide,  I  began  a  perfect  system  of  ro- 
tation and  soiling,  using  rye,  scarlet  clover,  red  clover, 
timothy,  oats  and  peas,  corn  and  barley,  in  succession. 


A  MODEL  DAIRY  FARM  7 

I  frequently  have  barley  four  and  one-half  feet  high 
in  October,  and  I  let  it  stand  just  as  long  as  I  can. 
If  it  looks  like  frost,  I  cut  the  barley,  putting  it  in 
piles  or  cocks,  where  it  remains  for  some  time." 

"  When  do  you  begin  feeding  soiling  crops  direct 
from  the  field,  and  how  long  do  you  continue  feed- 
ing them  ?  " 

"  This  depends  somewhat  upon  the  season,  but  I 
usually  begin  feeding  direct  from  the  field  April  23 
and  continue  until  November  26,  or  about  seven 
months.  Every  bit  of  forage  and  material  that  comes 
from  the  field  goes  through  the  fodder  cutter  before 
it  is  given  to  the  stock.  I  cut  it  in  quarter-inch 
lengths  and  feed  it.  I  cannot  afford  to  pasture,  and 
therefore  my  cattle  are  never  turned  on  any  of  my 
land.  Last  year  I  fed  from  my  farm  thirty-one  head 
of  cattle  and  two  horses." 

"  I  presume  you  depend  upon  silage  for  a  large 
amount  of  your  winter  feed  ?  " 

"  Yes,  I  have  two  silos,  side  by  side,  at  the  rear  of 
the  barn.  These  I  fill  with  second  crop  corn  from 
a  four  and  one-half  acre  field.  I  plant  it  in  rows 
three  feet  apart,  and  drop  the  seed  three  of  four 
grains  to  the  foot.  It  is  put  in  by  hand,  and  covered 
with  a  corn  coverer.  I  go  •  over  this  later  with  a 
weeder,  and  keep  the  ground  in  perfect  condition.  I 
cultivate  shallow  and  thoroughly,  as  often  as  I  can 
go  into  the  corn.  It  usually  grows  very  rapidly;  in 
one  instance  I  had  in  six  weeks  corn  that  hid  the 
horse  during  cultivation.  All  I  could  see  was  his 
ears  as  he  went  down  the  rows.  I  like  to  have 
corn  pretty  well  glazed  when  it  is  put  into  the  silo." 


8  PROFITABLE     DAIRYING 

THE  HAY  CROP 

"  How  do  you  prepare  and  handle  your  hay  crop  ?  " 

"  I  seed  for  hay  August  20,  never  before.  I  take 
off  the  crops  of  oats  and  peas  from  the  land,  and 
give  it  a  thorough  coating  of  manure,  putting  in  a 
reversible  sulky  plow,  and  breaking  it  up  thoroughly. 
I  harrow  and  reharrow  many  times.  I  do  not  believe 
that  land  can  be  in  a  too  finely  pulverized  condition 
for  seeding.  I  use  a  seeder,  and  go  over  the  land 
both  ways,  so  as  to  insure  a  very  thick  and  uniform 
stand.  I  use  six  quarts  clover,  five  quarts  timothy, 
two  and  one-half  pounds  alsike,  and  one  pound  red 
top  per  acre.  This  I  know  is  a  pretty  large  amount, 
but  in  fifteen  years  I  have  never  missed  a  single 
crop,  and  have  invariably  had  a  good  stand.  I  al- 
ways count  on  cutting  three  crops  from  my  hay 
fields  each  year. 

"  The  first  cutting  is  made  in  June,  when  the 
clover  is  just  in  bloom ;  the  second  about  six  weeks 
later,  when  the  clover  is  in  bloom  the  second  time. 
This,  however,  depends  somewhat  upon  the  season. 
Five  or  six  weeks  later  the  third  crop  is  cut.  I  cut 
my  hay  in  the  afternoon  and  leave  it  in  the  swath 
a  short  time  only.  It  is  then  put  in  windrows,  and 
shortly  afterward  in  cocks,  where  it  is  left  from  two 
to  two  and  one-half  clays.  These  are  opened,  if  the 
weather  is  favorable,  and  the  cocks  are  doubled.  If 
the  hay  is  in  prime  condition,  I  then  stir  it  a  second 
time,  and  put  four  cocks  in  one.  It  is  left  here  a 
short  time  before  being  hauled  to  the  barn  or  put  into 
the  rick. 

"When  it  is  handled  the  cock  is  upset,  and  the 
hay  is  taken  from  the  bottom  and  aired.  This  opens 


A  MODEL  DAIRY  FARM  9 

up  the  hay  again,  exposing  it  to  the  air,  and  thus 
perfecting  its  curing.  There  is  a  great  difference  be- 
tween dried  hay  and  cured  hay.  I  endeavor  to  keep 
all  the  qualities  in  the  hay,  and  have  found  that  it 
pays  well  to  follow  this  system.  When  I  was  cut- 
ting my  grass  and  clover  the  last  time,  several  vis- 
itors who  were  present  thought  it  would  be  impos- 
sible for  us  to  get  through  with  an  ordinary  mowing 
machine.  In  fact,  it  took  three  of  us  to  cut  the 
piece,  with  myself  on  the  machine,  and  the  boy 
ahead  and  man  behind,  and  still  we  had  all  we  could 
do  to  get  through.  The  greatest  difficulty  I  have  in 
harvesting  a  hay  crop  is  to  find  a  machine  that  will 
cut  it." 

"  How  do  you  manage  oats  and  Canada  field  peas 
where  they  are  planted  together  ?  " 

"  I  get  these  into  the  ground  just  as  early  in  the 
spring  as  possible.  I  set  the  plow  about  six  inches, 
get  the  ground  in  the  best  possible  condition,  and 
put  the  peas  in  with  a  drill,  about  the  last  week  in 
March  or  early  in  April.  Two  and  one-half  bushels 
of  peas  and  three  bushels  of  oats  per  acre,  are  the 
usual  amounts.  This  is  thick  seeding,  but  my  best 
results  have  come  from  this  proportion.  This  is 
turned  into  hay  just  as  soon  as  the  peas  begin  to 
form  in  the  pods.  I  do  not  mean  that  the  peas  should 
be  large  and  hardened,  but  at  the  time  the  first  little 
buttons  are  seen  in  the  pods,  when  they  are  cut  and 
cured  the  same  as  the  regular  hay  crops.  It  makes 
a  splendid  feed,  and  is  sweet  and  full  of  nutrition. 
The  animals  eat  it  readily,  but  all  of  it  goes  through 
the  cutter  before  it  reaches  them." 

"To  what  extent  do  you  use  crimson,  or  scarlet, 
clover?" 


10  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

"  Some  years  ago  I  used  a  great  deal  of  scarlet 
clover,  but  lately  have  not  used  so  much.  It  is  a 
splendid  crop  and  grows  very  satisfactorily  here.  I 
never  miss  getting  a  stand.  The  land  must  be  in  tip- 
top condition  before  seeding,  which  is  always  done  in 
August.  I  never  use  scarlet  clover  for  hay." 

SILAGE  AND  THE  SILO 

"When  do  you  put  in  your  first  corn  crop  for 
silage?  As  I  understand,  you  usually  get  a  crop 
for  your  silo  after  you  take  off  your  rye  hay  ?  " 

"  For  some  years  I  have  put  the  first  crop  of  corn 
in  on  May  8,  and  do  not  begin  to  cut  it  for  silage  un- 
til it  silks.  The  ensilage  corn  is  always  put  on  rye 
ground.  The  rye  hay  is  fed  mostly  to  heifers,  dry 
cows,  and  horses.  It  is  cut  when  in  early  blossom, 
and  cured  the  same  as  the  other  hay,  in  curing  cocks 
and  weather  cocks.  For  many  years  we  have  opened 
the  silo  November  27,  having  fed  direct  from  the 
field  to  that  date." 

"  When  do  you  put  in  barley,  and  do  you  make 
one  or  two  sowings  ?  " 

"  I  get  my  first  crop  of  barley  in  the  ground  Au- 
gust 5,  unless  the  weather  is  unfavorable.  The  second 
sowing  is  made  August  10-12.  I  use  two  and  one- 
half  to  three  bushels  per  acre,  depending  somewhat 
upon  the  season  and  condition  of  the  soil." 

"  How  long  have  you  used  a  silo?  " 

"  I  felt  the  need  of  a  silo  from  the  very  beginning, 
and  as  there  was  no  building  available,  I  converted 
an  old  chicken-house,  28  x  7  feet,  and  1 1  feet  deep, 
into  a  silo.  The  interior  was  studded,  on  which  was 
placed  a  horizontal  layer  of  boards  covered  with 


A  MODEL  DAIRY  FARM  II 

three-ply  felt  paper.  Over  this  was  placed  a  per- 
pendicular layer  of  boards,  and  covered  with  tar.  This 
silo  was  used  in  this  condition  for  sixteen  years, 
and  we  never  lost  any  silage.  After  the  new  silo  was 
constructed,  a  few  years  ago,  the  old  chicken-house 
silo  was  torn  down,  and  to  my  surprise  only  three 
unsound  boards  were  found  in  the  entire  building. 
The  sound  boards  were  used  in  part  in  building  an 
addition  to  the  barn.  I  do  not  think  there  is  any- 
thing better  for  the  interior  of  a  silo  and  the  cement 
stone  walls  than  a  good  coating  of  gas  tar.  In  fact, 
it  not  only  preserves  the  wood,  but  keeps  the  interior 
in  splendid  condition  from  a  sanitary  point  of  view. 
It  does  not  injure  the  silage  in  the  least. 

"  With  so  many  animals,  I  should  think  you  would 
be  obliged  to  buy  a  great  deal  of  litter  for  bedding, 
etc.?" 

"  I  have  never  bought  a  pound  of  straw  or  litter 
of  any  kind.  Everything  that  I  feed  and  use  is 
raised  on  this  fifteen-acre  farm,  with  the  exception 
of  cencentrated  feeds,  such  as  bran,  linseed,  gluten 
cottonseed-meal,  etc.  I  still  have  one  stack  of 
straw,  which  was  put  up  June  6,  1901.  I  have 
been  cutting  and  using  this  for  bedding  since  April 
I,  1902,  and  still  have  a  large  quantity  of  it  for  fu- 
ture use.  It  is  as  bright  and  sweet  as  new-mown 
rye  straw." 

HANDLING   THE    MANURE 

"  I  notice  that  your  barnyard  is  clean,  and  that 
there  is  no  rubbish  or  general  litter  around  your 
stable  or  place.  How  do  you  handle  the  manure 


12  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

from  so  many  animals/  and  what  is  done  with  it  so 
as  to  keep  the  place  in  such  a  cleanly  condition  ?  " 

"  The  manure  from  the  stable  is  carted  and  spread 
upon  the  fields  every  day  of  the  year  with  the  ex- 
ception of  Sundays.  During  the  growing  season,  a 
load  of  manure  is  taken  to  the  field  and  spread  on  the 
ground  where  the  soiling  crops  are  taken  off  daily 
for  feeding  crops,  and  a  load  of  forage  is  brought 
back  to  the  stable  in  turn,  but  in  the  late  fall  and 
winter  months,  on  the  return  trip  from  the  field,  the 
cart  is  empty.  I  believe  that  one  great  secret  of  my 
success  is  in  the  fact  that  I  get  the  advantage  and 
benefit  of  everything  that  is  in  the  manure.  As  all 
the  litter  and  bedding  is  cut  in  quarter-inch  stuff,  I 
have  no  difficulty  whatever  in  handling  the  material. 
I  preserve  all  liquids  and  solids,  and  give  the 
land  the  benefit  of  them  immediately  after  they  are 
made.  I  have  never  bought  a  pound  of  commercial 
fertilizer  of  any  kind,  except  as  an  experiment.  In 
fact,  with  my  system,  I  do  not  feel  that  I  need  it." 

"  Have  you  ever  used  lime  of  any  kind  ?  " 

"  I  have  never  put  on  a  pound  of  lime  except  once 
for  an  experiment,  and  do  not  think  my  land  needs  it. 
As  you  will  note,  it  is  as  light  and  open  as  a  freshly 
worked  mole  hill." 

"  Will  you  tell  me  something  about  your  method 
of  feeding  and  handling  your  crops  after  they  come 
to  the  barn?" 

FEEDING  THE   STOCK 

"In  the  first  place,  all  the  roughage  is  cut  in 
quarter-inch  lengths,  as  already  stated.  I  have  a  one- 
horse  tread  power  for  the  purpose,  and  have  the  cut- 


A  MODEL  DAIRY  FARM  13 

ter  and  tread  on  the  barn  floor  above  the  cattle.  The 
material  is  cut  and  dropped  down  through  a  chute 
into  the  dairy  barn  below.  The  silage  is  taken  out 
in  bags,  which  is  a  very  convenient  way  to  handle  it, 
and  is  not  scattered  all  over  the  stable  or  littered 
around  the  silo.  I  am  very  careful  about  the  meth- 
ods of  feeding,  and  never  feed  or  bed  cows  before 
milking.  I  think  this  is  a  very  bad  practice  to  fol- 
low. It  not  only  excites  the  animals,  but  there  is 
more  or  less  dirt  or  dust  raised  after  such  a  pro- 
cedure. 

"  I  believe  in  a  liberal  use  of  bran,  linseed,  gluten, 
cottonseed,  etc.  I  consider  a  ton  of  manure,  pro- 
duced where  bran  is  used,  liberally  worth  $14,  pro- 
vided, of  course,  that  the  liquid  manure  is  saved  as 
well  as  the  solid,  both  of  which  we  retain.  Where 
linseed  is  used,  the  manure  is  worth,  in  my  opinion, 
$17;  gluten,  $17  to  $18,  and  cottonseed-meal,  $22. 
The  amount  of  food  for  each  individual  cow  de- 
pends on  the  size  of  the  animal  and  lactation.  I 
study  the  individuals  very  carefully,  and  note  not  only 
their  eating  capacity,  but  their  productive  capacity 
in  milk  as  well.  There  is  no  general  rule  that  I  can 
give  that  will  cover  my  entire  herd. 

"  I  like  to  dry  a  cow  off  four  or  five  weeks  be- 
fore calving,  and  regulate  her  food  accordingly.  If 
she  is  slow  to  dry  up,  I  limit  her  food  to  timothy  hay 
and  water,  and  alternately  skip  a  teat  in  milking.  This 
treatment  usually  drys  the  animal  up  in  short  time. 
As  a  rule,  a  cow  in  full  flow  of  milk  usually  has,  in 
my  stable,  about  thirty  pounds  of  ensilage  per  day. 
This  is  given  in  messes,  three  times  a  day.  Usually 
about  two  and  one-half  pounds  of  concentrated 


14  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

food  to  each  1,000  pounds  of  the  animal's  weight  is 
allowed.  In  this  case  the  feeder  must  use  his 
judgment  about  the  productive  capacity  of  the 
animal,  and  if  he  has  no  judgment  he  has  no  business 
to  be  a  dairyman." 

MANAGEMENT  OF  THE  MILK 

"  I  should  think  from  this  system  you  would  get  a 
very  uniform  flow  of  milk  the  year  round.  Where 
do  you  find  a  market  for  your  product,  and  at  what 
price  is  it  sold  ?  " 

"  The  amount  of  milk  produced  by  my  herd  dur- 
ing the  winter  and  summer  varies  only  slightly.  In 
fact,  my  milk  tests  about  5.80  the  year  round.  It  is 
not  tested  by  me,  but  by  the  parties  who  get  it.  This 
is  considered  very  good  milk,  and  I  use  every  pre- 
caution to  keep  it  in  the  very  best  possible  sanitary 
condition.  All  the  supply  goes  to  a  State  Institu- 
tion a  short  distance  away,  for  which  I  receive 
six  and  one-half  cents  per  quart.  I  insist  on  handling 
the  cans  and  having  the  care  of  the  refrigerator 
where  my  milk  is  kept  at  the  home.  I  deliver  once 
a  day  in  cans.  It  is  cooled  carefully  immediately 
after  milking  by  stirring  it  to  free  it  from  the  animal 
gases.  It  is  then  placed  in  a  cooling  tank,  where  it 
remains  until  the  second  milking.  It  is  then  de- 
livered at  the  home  in  cans.  The  temperature  is 
kept  uniform  in  a  refrigerator,  kept  scrupulously 
clean,  according  to  my  directions.  When  the  milk 
is  placed  in  the  refrigerator  by  my  man,  the  door 
is  locked  and  the  key  turned  over  to  the  superintend- 
ent in  charge.  Thus  my  care  of  the  product  is 
ended.  The  authorities  who  have  tested  this  milk 


A  MODEL  DAIRY  FARM  15 

have  commended   it  highly   for   its  purity   and  uni- 
formity, winter  and  summer." 


STABLE     MANAGEMENT 

"  I  judge  from  your  statement  that  your  cattle  are 
kept  in  the  stable  practically  the  year  around,  with 
no  outdoor  exercise,  as  is  practiced  by  rnany  dairy- 
men. Have  you  ever  had  any  bad  effects  from  this 
system,  and  what  has  been  the  extent  of  your  vet- 
erinary bills  during  your  dairy  experience  ?  " 

"  While  my  cows  are  kept  in  the  stable  practically 
365  days  in  the  year,  I  do  not  consider  that  they  are 
unduly  confined.  They  have  perfect  ventilation,  clean, 
sanitary  stalls,  the  most  succulent  food  that  can  be 
obtained,  and  plenty  of  clean,  fresh  water.  I  con- 
sider that  a  cow  that  is  giving  a  full  flow  of  milk 
daily  is  expending  as  much  energy  chewing  her  cud 
as  a  horse  working  daily  in  the  field.  Under  such 
conditions,  if  the  animal  is  kept  in  perfect  physical 
condition,  she  does  not  need  the  outdoor  exercise  so 
frequently  talked  about  by  many  dairymen.  In  fact, 
where  I  see  a  cow  standing  in  a  fence  corner  during 
a  raw,  damp,  sleety  day  (not  an  uncommon  sight),  I 
feel  that  the  owner  is  robbing  himself  as  well  as 
torturing  the  poor  animal.  During  the  past  six 
years  my  veterinary  bill  has  been  just  $1.60,  and  that 
was  not  due  to  any  disorder  in  the  herd,  but  to  an 
accident.  My  cattle  are  all  perfectly  healthy,  as  can 
be  attested  by  their  bright,  clear  eyes  and  general 
physical  condition.  I  scarcely  know  what  it  is  to 
have  a  sick  animal  in  my  herd.  If  there  is  anything 
I  am  particular  about,  it  is  sanitation  and  comfort. 


16  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

My  stables,  as  well  as  my   animals,   are  disinfected 
regularly." 

WATER  AND  SALT 

"  You  have  not  yet  told  me  anything  about  the 
amount  of  water  you  give  your  animals  daily,  and 
how  they  are  salted  ?  " 

"A  cow  in  perfect  physical  condition  and  full  flow 
of  milk  should  drink  at  least  twenty-eight  quarts  of 
water  daily.  I  have  some  animals  that  store  away 
fifty-six  quarts.  Some  years  ago  I  used  rock  salt 
quite  extensively,  but  found  it  was  more  or  less  un- 
satisfactory, inasmuch  as  I  could  not  judge  it  as  I 
would  like.  I  now  use  the  very  finest  and  best  table  salt. 
I  purchase  it  by  the  barrel,  and  each  cow  is  given  one- 
fourth  pound  mixed  in  her  mess  every  day.  My 
animals  are  watered  three  times  a  day.  A  bucket 
is  used  for  this  purpose,  so  that  I  can  see  what  each 
animal  is  doing  and  know  pretty  well  what  I  can 
expect  from  her.  It  is  a  good  guide  to  the  feeder." 

MILKING 

"  What  precaution  do  you  take  in  milking  your 
animals  ?  " 

"  Just  before  my  cattle  are  milked,  they  are 
groomed  and  thoroughly  cleaned.  The  attendant 
then  washes  his  hands,  puts  on  a  gingham  apron, 
and  with  a  towel,  carried  in  his  belt,  wipes  off  the 
teats  and  udder  of  the  animal  before  he  begins  milk- 
ing. This  towel  is  slightly  dampened  so  that  no  dust 
or  other  material  can  be  stirred  up  with  it.  A  clean 
towel  is  used  at  each  milking.  The  milk  is  removed 


l8  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

from  the  stable  as  soon  as  possible  after  it  is  drawn, 
stirred,  and  set  away  and  kept  cool." 

DISINFECTANTS 

"  You  stated  that  you  believe  in  thorough  disinfec- 
tion of  both  animals  and  stables.  What  materials  do 
you  use  for  this  purpose  ?  " 

"  I  use  different  disinfectants.  I  have  had  splen- 
did results  with  the  use  of  creolin,  using  it  at  the 
rate  of  one  tablespoonful  in  one-half  gallon  of  water. 
I  use  this  in  a  fine  spray,  throwing  it  over  the  hind 
quarters  and  flanks  of  the  animals  two  or  three 
times  a  week.  The  cement  troughs  in  which  the 
manure  and  liquids  are  caught  are  disinfected  with 
the  same  material  after  they  are  cleaned.  At  stated 
intervals  all  the  stalls  and  floors  and  other  parts  of 
the  building  are  given  the  same  treatment.  The  in- 
terior as  well  as  the  ceilings  are  whitewashed  sev- 
eral times  during  the  year.  With  these  precautions, 
I  do  not  have  any  difficulty  in  keeping  my  herd  and 
surroundings  perfectly  pure  and  clean  up  to  date." 

NO    FAILURES 

Mr.  Detrich  is  not  anxious  to  make  a  show  or 
parade  his  doings  on  the  little  farm,  but  is  ready  to 
tell  his  methods  when  questioned.  He  hides  nothing 
from  your  eyes,  whether  soil,  crops,  or  animals.  He 
was  asked  what  he  did  on  his  small  farm  if  a  crop 
fails. 

"  I  don't  have  any  to  miss.  If  I  can  get  the  seed 
into  the  ground,  I  am  all  right,  wet  or  dry.  Farmers 
cannot  depend  on  summer  rains.  It  is  the  winter 


A  MODEL  DAIRY  FARM  19 

supply  of  snow  and  rain  the  growing  crops  must 
draw  from,  the  humus  reservoir.  Humus  is  cheap 
alongside  subirrigation,  so  I  try  to  supply  humus." 

"Do  you  think  your  land  better  than  anybody  else 
has?"  * 

"  No ;  a  turkey  will  fatten  in  any  coop  if  you  put 
the  food,  water,  and  sand  for  his  gizzard.  It  makes 
no  difference  whether  the  coop  is  hemlock  or  ma- 
hogany. I  told  you  in  the  start,  when  I  took  the 
farm,  I  had  one  horse  and  two  cows,  and  had  to  buy 
hay.  The  number  of  acres  are  the  same  to-day, 
but  the  crops  have  surpassed  my  most  sanguine 
expectation." 

"I  believe  you  are  one  of  the  Pennsylvania  State 
Institute  lecturers?" 

"Yes ;  my  friend,  the  Hon.  Jason  Sexton,  in  1894, 
insisted  on  me  speaking  at  an  institute  held  in  my 
own  county,  and  after  some  persuasion  I  did  so.  I 
will  never  forget  it.  A  quaint  smile  came  over  the 
audience  when  I  began  to  speak,  as  much  as  to  say, 
boys,  now  we  will  have  some  fun,  as  the  parson  is 
going  to  talk.  But  before  I  was  done  the  counte- 
nances had  become  eager  listeners.  At  the  conclusion 
of  the  lecture  I  opened  a  two-quart  glass  jar  of 
sweet  ensilage,  taken  from  my  silo  before  daylight 
by  my  farm  boy,  and  handed  to  me  to  show  that  our 
dairy  herd  had  June  pasture  in  January." 

FARM  BUILDINGS 

Mr.  Detrich's  farm  buildings  are  ordinary,  as  seen 
in  Fig.  3 ;  in  fact,  in  appearance  they  are  not  up  to 
date,  as  little  or  no  paint  has  been  used  outside. 


2O  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

But  inside  they  are  all  comfort  and  convenience,  as 
already  noted.  He  is  eminently  practical,  and  says 
red  gates  and  gold  ornaments  don't  make  cow's 
milk.  Neither  will  zero  weather,  milk  stool  over  the 
back,  ice  water  or  sheaf  of  corn  stover.  Mr.  Detrich 
does  not  care  much  what  a  man  thinks,  but  what  he 
does  and  knows.  "  Know  and  do  "  seem  to  be  the  two 
words  that  impress  you  when  talking  with  this 
practical  and  successful  preacher-farmer. 


CHAPTER  II 


IMPORTANCE   OF  THE   DAIRY 

THERE  are  more  than  $2,000,000,000  invested  in 
the  dairy  interests  in  the  United  States,  more  than  is 
engaged  in  the  national  banking  business.  It  is  esti- 
mated that  it  requires  18,000,000  cows  to  supply  the 
milk  product  of  the  United  States.  The  dairy  and 
agricultural  machinery  and  implements  used  in  carry- 
ing on  this  industry  are  worth  over  $200,000,000. 
More  than  700,000  persons  are  engaged  as  hired 
help;  30,000,000  tons  of  hay  and  300,000,000  bushels 
of  grain  are  consumed  annually  by  the  cattle  and 
horses  used  in  the  dairy  trade  in  the  United  States. 
The  rapidly  increasing  annual  production  means  an 
enormously  increased  importance  to  dairying. 

Twenty-five  years  ago  comparatively  few  specially 
bred  cows — cows  bred  for  milk  or  butter  production 
— were  found  in  the  average  dairy  herd.  Prices  of 
such  cattle  were  at  that  time  prohibitive.  From  $300 
to  several  thousand  dollars  were  required  to  secure 
a  good  registered  animal  of  any  recognized  dairy 
breed.  To-day  a  better  specimen  can  be  purchased 
at  prices  ranging  from  $30  to  $75  than  could  be 
secured  at  any  price  thirty  years  ago.  Then  four- 
teen pounds  of  butter  a  week  was  about  the  maxi- 
mum to  be  expected  from  the  best  Jersey  or  Guern- 
sey cows.  To-day  twenty-five  pounds  a  week  is  not 
unusual,  and  few  first-class  Jersey,  Guernsey,  or 
Holstein  herds  are  to  be  found  in  which  there  are 

21 


22  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

not  cows  capable  of  exceeding  twenty  pounds  of 
butter  in  seven  days  without  special  preparation  or 
forced  feeding. 

Twenty  years  ago  100  to  125  pounds  of  butter  and 
3,000  pounds  of  milk  were  the  annual  production  of 
the  average  dairy  cow  of  the  country.  To-day  the 
better  class  of  dairies  average  from  280  to  400  pounds 
of  butter,  and  from  5,000  to  7,000  pounds  of  milk 
per  cow  in  365  days.  Not  only  has  the  average  an- 
nual production  been  thus  increased,  but  the  cost  of 
keeping  has  been  reduced  by  improved  scientific  feed- 
ing methods.  This  does  not  mean  that  the  average 
amount  of  feed  value  per  cow  has  been  decreased, 
but  that  proper  keeping  has  increased  results  enor- 
mously over  comparative  feed  costs  in  former  times. 

The  silo,  clover,  alfalfa,  roots,  balanced  rations, 
and  the  specially  bred  cow,  have  greatly  decreased 
the  cost  of  producing  a  pound  of  butter  and  a  hun- 
dred pounds  of  milk.  In  short,  the  dairy  standard 
has  been  raised,  and  the  up-to-date  dairyman  will 
continue  to  advance  his  standard  accordingly,  to  en- 
able him  to  meet  the  competition  of  the  future.  The 
standard  of  the  cow  of  the  twentieth  century  must 
not  be  less  than  280  pounds  of  butter  and  5,000 
pounds  of  milk  annually,  when  fed  proper  rations 
under  favorable  conditions.  No  cow  that  fails  to  do 
this  has  a  right  to  a  place  in  the  modern  dairy.  A 
knowledge  of  the  bacteriology  of  fermentation  neces- 
sary in  the  production  of  first-class  butter,  as  well  as 
those  detrimental  to  its  production,  has  greatly  ad- 
vanced dairy  interests,  and  has  enabled  the  dairymen 
to  harness  these  forces  to  do  his  bidding.  The  study 
and  control  of  these  forces  are  of  vital  importance. 


•T 


CHAPTER  III 


THE    PHYSIOLOGY    AND    SECRETION    OF 
MILK 

THIS  topic  is  a  subject  upon  which  much  has  been 
written.  Milk  is  one  of  the  most  common  products 
of  animals,  and  is  inseparably  connected  with  human 
existence.  It  is,  however,  one  of  the  most  mysterious 
products  with  which  we  have  to  deal.  Man  has  been 
able,  by  breeding  and  environment,  materially  to 
change  the  quality  and  quantity  of  milk  production. 
He  has  been  able  to  change  so  far  the  natural  condi- 
tion of  the  cow  as  to  cause  her  to  give  a  limited 
quantity  of  very  rich  milk  or  a  large  quantity  of  milk 
less  rich  in  butter  fat.  While  the  character  of  the 
fully  developed  individual  cow  may  become  so  fixed 
that  she  is  not  subject  to  change  in  quality  by  change 
in  feed  or  care,  her  offspring,  taken  at  birth,  may  be 
trained  in  such  a  manner  as  to  improve  both  quality 
and  quantity  by  the  manner  in  which  it  is  reared. 

Milk  is  a  product  which  is  subject  to  remarkable 
changes  while  in  the  body  of  the  animal  secreting  it. 
Fright,  anger,  pain — all  leave  their  traces  in  the  milk. 
In  the  human  mother  the  first  two  of  these  have  been 
known  to  infuse  the  milk  with  poison,  and  to  cause 
convulsions,  and  sometimes  the  death,  of  the  nursing 
child.  No  doubt  the  same  causes  produce  similar 
effects  in  the  animal  mother.  Experiments  have 
proved  that  when  a  cow  has  been  milked  on  one  side, 
she  will,  after  being  frightened  or  greatly  excited,  im- 

23 


24  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

mediately  thereafter  yield  milk  from  the  other  side 
distinctly  different  in  quality  and  percentage  of  fat. 
All  this  we  know;  but  how  she  secretes  the  milk  and 
by  what  process  it  is  deposited  in  the  udder  the  most 
skilled  physiologists  have  failed  to  inform  us. 

Writers  have  differed  widely  as  to  the  process  of 
milk  production,  each  giving  apparently  good  reasons 
for  his  position.  The  fact  that  fright  or  anger  may, 
in  a  single  minute,  change  the  character  of  the  milk 
shows  that  the  mental  state  of  the  animal  exerts  a 
powerful  control  over  it.  The  highly  developed  sys- 
tem known  as  milk  veins,  connecting  the  udder  with 
the  heart,  shows  that  in  some  way  the  milk  is  secreted 
from  the  blood.  But  no  writer  whose  works  I  have 
read  has  claimed  to  find  any  trace  of  the  fluid  known 
as  milk  in  the  blood.  The  fact  that  the  milk  secre- 
tion sometimes  amounts  to  fifty  quarts  in  a  single  day 
shows  that  unless  the  elements  which  enter  in  the 
milk  be  combined  in  the  udder  the  blood  would  con- 
tain traces  of  milk.  With  all  the  investigation  that 
has  been  made  we  must  confess  that  we  know  but 
little  about  the  manner  in  which  milk  is  secreted. 

The  udder  consists  of  two  parallel  glands  lying 
longitudinally  with  the  body  of  the  cow  and  sup- 
ported by  strong  muscles.  Its  interior  is  composed 
of  tissue  interlaced  with  and  sustained  by  ligaments 
depending  from  the  body.  The  veins,  milk  ducts, 
and  glands  are  interwoven  in  a  wonderful  system. 
Within  the  gland  tissues  are  the  milk  cells  in  which 
the  fats  and  other  elements  composing  milk  are  col- 
lected and  combined.  Albumen,  fat,  casein,  water, 
ash,  etc.,  are  here  intermingled,  stored  in  little  sacks, 
and,  at  milking,  excreted  as  milk.  The  cells  which 


PHYSIOLOGY    AND    SECRETION    OF    MILK  25 

contain  the  milk  are  broken  down  at  each  milking. 
Every  observer  has  noticed  that  a  cow's  udder  will 
fill  one-third  in  the  fifteen  minutes  prior  to  milking. 
He  has  seen  a  pail  filled  with  milk  from  an  udder 
which  could  have  been  placed  in  the  pail,  milk  and 
all,  at  the  commencement  of  milking.  How  milk  is 
secreted  is  best  expressed  by  an  interrogation  point. 
The  following  substances  in  the  indicated  propor- 
tions enter  into  the  composition  of  average  milk: 

Water 87.25  per  cent. 

Fat      3.50  per  cent. 

Casein 3.50  per  cent. 

Albumen .       .40  per  cent. 

Milk  sugar 4.60  per  cent. 

Mineral   substances 75  per  cent. 

The  variation  of  what  is  called  pure  milk  from 
different  cows  in  full  flow  is  as  follows : 

Water 83.65  to  90.00  per  cent. 

Fat      1.80  to    7.00  per  cent. 

Casein 3.00  to    5.00  per  cent. 

Albumen       30  to      .52  per  cent. 

Milk  sugar 3.00  to    5.50  per  cent. 

Mineral  substances 70  to      .80  per  cent. 

In  the  matter  of  butter  fat  it  makes  a  great  differ- 
ence to  the  owner  whether  his  cow  belongs  to  the  1.8 
per  cent,  or  to  the  7  per  cent,  class.  Cows  well  ad- 
vanced in  lactation  often  show  a  greater  percentage 
of  solids  than  the  above,  but  the  quality  of  milk  is 
largely  an  individual  characteristic,  subject,  however, 
to  marked  changes  of  ill  treatment  or  other  causes. 
Change  of  feed  may  control  the  quantity,  but  little 
control  of  quality  can  be  effected  by  the  character  of 
the  feed  if  fed  under  ordinary  and  normal  condi- 


26  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

tions.  The  churning  attributes  of  milk  differ  widely 
in  different  cows.  Some  breeds  of  cows  produce  a 
large  butter-fat  globule,  others  a  small  one.  This 
characteristic  is  largely  fixed  by  breeding,  as  is  also 
the  quality  of  the  milk.  In  some  milk  the  fat  globules 
are  tender  and  easily  broken,  while  in  other  milk  the 
globule  is  tough  and  hard  to  churn.  Modern  proc- 
esses have,  however,  so  far  overcome  this  that  less 
than  half  a  pound  of  butter  is  lost  in  the  1,000 
pounds  of  milk. 


CHAPTER  IV 


THE   FUTURE   OF   DAIRYING 

THERE  has  never  been  a  time  when  the  outlook  for 
profitable  dairying  was  more  favorable  than  it  is  at 
present.  The  organization  of  the  business  being 
carried  on  by  the  United  States  Department  of  Agri- 
culture and  the  different  States,  tends  to  bring  the 
notice  of  foreign  dealers  to  our  butter,  cheese,  con- 
densed milk,  and  other  dairy  products.  Recently  the 
Department  of  Agriculture  has  investigated  methods 
employed  in  the  Old  World  countries  producing 
prime  dairy  products,  notably  Denmark,  which  fur- 
nishes England  the  greater  part  of  its  imported  high- 
class  butter.  The  methods  followed  there  were  found 
to  be  practically  the  same  as  those  practiced  here  by 
first-class  dairymen.  But  their  average  dairymen  pay 
far  more  attention  to  cleanliness  than  do  ours  of  the 
United  States.  The  importance  of  cleanliness  has 
been  shown  by  chemists,  microscopists,  and  experi- 
ment stations,  and  the  knowledge  published  has  gone 
far  to  correct  prevailing  evils  which  arise  from  lack 
of  care  in  this  respect. 

Condensed  milk  opens  .a  great  field  for  the  dairy- 
men. At  present  the  "  processing "  of  condensed 
milk  falls  far  short  of  perfection ;  "  swells "  and 
"  thicks  "  are  serious  obstacles  to  the  complete  suc- 
cess of  the  business.  Experience  and  skill  are,  how- 
ever, lessening  these  difficulties.  There  is  every  rea- 
son to  expect  that  in  the  near  future  experiment  sta- 

27 


28  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

tions  will  bring  their  scientific  skill  to  bear  upon  this 
subject  to  settle  and  obviate  these  difficulties.  Con- 
densed milk  will  then  be  a  commodity  that  can  be 
shipped  to  any  part  of  the  world.  When  the  problem 
of  successful  condensation  has  been  solved,  condensed 
milk  will  be  the  most  prominent  dairy  product.  The 
development  of  the  condensed  milk  branch  of  the 
dairy  industry  will  give  dairying  an  impetus  such  as 
it  has  never  previously  received. 

In  the  last  few  years  bacteriology,  as  affecting  the 
dairy  industry,  has  received  an  attention  that  has 
made  great  improvements  in  the  science  of  butter 
making.  It  is  now  known  that  the  "  ripening "  or 
curing  the  cream  results  from  the  growth  of  bacteria. 
This  knowledge  has  led  to  great  improvement  in  the 
control  of  bacteria  development,  so  that  perfect  but- 
ter can  be  produced  with  almost  a  certainty  of  results. 

Most  of  the  States  have  established  Agricultural 
Colleges,  where  an  opportunity  is  offered,  tuition  free, 
to  young  men  who  desire  to  qualify  themselves  in  the 
art  of  butter  making,  in  the  underlying  sciences  and 
in  other  branches  of  agriculture.  Every  student  who 
goes  out  from  one  of  these  institutions  at  once  be- 
comes an  object-lesson  for  others  engaged  in  the 
same  business.  Farmers'  institutes  are  doing  a  great 
work  in  the  matter  of  agricultural  education.  In- 
formation as  to  dairying  is  being  rapidly  and  sys- 
tematically disseminated.  Dairy  interests  are  being 
advanced  accordingly,  and  every  enterprising  farmer 
is  awakening  to  the  fact  that  he  must  keep  up  with 
the  procession  if  he  expects  to  compete  with  others  in 
the  same  business. 

Breeding  and  feeding  have  taken  rapid  strides  in 


THE  FUTURE  OF  DAIRYING  2£ 

advancement  in  the  last  ten  years.  Methods  of  pre- 
serving succulent  foods  for  winter  use  have  become 
so  nearly  perfected  that  winter-made  butter  possesses 
all  the  delicacy  of  flavor  that  summer-made  butter 
does.  Silage  produced  at  a  cost  not  exceeding  $1.25 
a  ton  affords  a  cheap  feed  for  use  in  winter  dairy- 
ing, greatly  increasing  the  average  of  profit  for  the 
year.  Alfalfa  and  other  forage  plants  increase  the 
amount  of  milk  and  butter.  The  modern  cow  is  a 
highly  developed  machine  capable  of  converting  feeds 
into  milk  for  immediate  consumption  or  for  the  mak- 
ing of  butter,  cheese,  and  other  products,  at  a  cost 
much  less  than  was  possible  in  former  times. 

It  is  not  many  years  ago  when  the  herd  that 
averaged  125  pounds  of  butter  a  year  per  cow  was 
considered  a  good  one.  But  the  development  of  the 
dairy  cow,  brought  about  by  selection  and  breeding, 
enables  any  enterprising  farmer  to  possess  a  herd 
capable  of  averaging  300  pounds.  The  additional 
cost  of  feed  necessary  to  make  the  difference  can  be 
made'  good  with  the  price  of  sixty  pounds  of  butter. 
A  decade  ago  the  terms  "  protein,"  "  carbohydrates," 
"  dry  matter,"  etc.,  were  unknown  to  the  average 
dairyman.  It  was  common  to  find  a  man  who  was 
feeding  one  element  in  excess  of  what  the  cow 
needed,  and  letting  her  starve  for  want  of  enough  of 
another,  to  the  great  loss  of  both  butter  fat  and  feed. 

Improvements  in  the  methods  of  breeding  and 
feeding  are  being  made  such  as  were  never  dreamed 
of  by  the  dairyman  of  thirty  years  ago.  This  im- 
provement will  continue  until,  in  the  near  future,  the 
poorly  conducted  dairy  will  be  even  rarer  than  it  is 
now.  In  material  advancement  dairying  has  kept 


3O  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

pace  with  the  other  great  industries  of  the  country. 
Cost  of  production  has  been  greatly  reduced  by  the 
introduction  of  scientific  methods  of  feeding,  special 
breeding,  and  improved  processes  of  manufacture. 
The  resulting  product  averages  as  good  as  the  best 
of  a  decade  ago.  The  advance  in  the  price  of  prime 
butter  is  a  special  inducement  for  every  man  in  the 
business  to  push  to  the  front. 


CHAPTER  V 


DAIRY   BREEDS 

THERE  are  five  dairy  breeds  that  to-day  admittedly 
stand  at  the  front,  each  in  its  line.  Other  breeds  are 
being  developed  that  will  likely  become  close  seconds, 
and  will  perhaps  push  to  the  front  rank.  At  present 
we  shall  speak  of  the  five  only. 

THE  JERSEY* 

The  Island  of  Jersey,  one  of  the  Channel  Islands, 
located  to  the  north  of  France  in  the  English  Chan- 
nel, is  eleven  miles  in  length  and  six  in  width.  It  is 
the  home  of  one  of  the  most  widely  known  of  the 
dairy  breeds.  The  climate  of  these  Islands  is  warm 
and  equable,  the  soil  very  productive.  The  land  hold- 
ings are  small.  Few  herds  on  the  island  number 
more  than  ten  or  twelve  cows.  Rents  are  high,  $50 
to  $100  an  acre.  As  a  result  cows  are  rarely  allowed 
to  roam  at  large,  but  are  tethered  out  and  at  night 
led  in,  and  mostly  cared  for  by  the  women.  Under 
these  surroundings  a  delicate  and  highly  organized 
race  of  cattle  has  been  developed. 

For  some  200  years  much  pains  has  been  taken  to 
prevent  the  importation  of  outside  cattle,  in  order  to 
maintain  the  purity  of  the  breed  reared  there.  More 


*  This  article  is  an  interesting  and  concise  presentation  of 
the  prominent  points  of  the  Jersey  breed,  and  we  do  not  see 
that  any  changes  need  be  made  on  our  part. — J.  J.  HEMING- 
WAY, Secretary  of  the  American  Jersey  Cattle  Club. 


32  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

than  a  century  since  a  law  was  passed  which  pre- 
vented, under  heavy  penalty,  the  importation  of  any 
cow  or  bull.  The  authentic  purity  of  this  breed  ex- 
cels, in  point  of  time,  that  of  all  others  of  English 
origin. 

About  1840  some  specimens  of  this  breed,  called 
"  Alderneys,"  were  brought  to  the  United  States. 
Authorities  differ  as  to  the  identity  of  the  Alderney 
with  the  Jersey.  Whatever  difference  may  formerly 
have  existed,  they  are  to-day  merged  under  the  name 
of  Jersey.  Those  imported  at  an  early  date  did  not 
differ  materially  in  form  and  appearance  from  those 
known  to-day  as  the  Jersey.  In  1860  Jerseys  were 
first  imported  in  considerable  numbers.  From  that 
time  until  the  nineties  there  were  large  importations, 
nearly  2,000  being  exported  annually  from  the  island, 
the  majority  coming  to  the  United  States.  At  the 
present  time  most  of  the  increase  in  this  country 
comes  from  domestic  breeding.  Acclimatization  has, 
to  a  degree,  improved  the  hardihood  of  the  breed. 
To-day  better  animals  are  produced  from  domestic 
breeding  than  have  ever  been  imported. 

The  true  Jersey  breeder  has  never  sought  to  in- 
crease the  flow  of  milk  at  the  cost  of  quality.  The 
animals  have  been  bred  to  preserve  their  butter-fat 
producing  attributes,  although  quantity  has  not  been 
entirely  lost  sight  of.  The  butter-fat  globule  of  the 
Jersey  is  large  and  uniform  in  size,  or  at  least  more 
nearly  so  than  that  of  most  other  breeds.  As  a  result 
it  creams  readily  by  either  the  gravity  or  centrifugal 
method.  The  average  butter  production  of  this  breed, 
under  fairly  favorable  conditions,  will  exceed  300 
pounds  per  cow.  In  weight  the  Jersey  cow  varies 


3 


It 

d 


34  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

from  700  to  1,000  pounds,  bulls  from  1,000  to  1,800. 
Breeders  in  this  country  have  considerably  increased 
the  average  weight  of  both  cows  and  bulls.  The  pre- 
vailing color  is  fawn  or  light  yellow.  The  breed, 
however,  varies  in  color  from  broken  fawn  and  white 
to  dark  brown.  Cattle  fanciers,  as  a  rule,  prefer  the 
solid  color.  Experience  has  shown  that  those  of 
broken  fawn  and  white  are  as  likely  to  be  good  pro- 
ducers as  any.  Some  of  the  finest  specimens  of  the 
breed  have  been  of  broken  color.  The  muzzle  is 
usually  a  strongly  marked  breed  characteristic  as  to 
color. 

In  form  the  Jersey  is,  like  other  dairy  breeds,  slim 
and  trim;  has  thin  neck  and  sharp  withers.  Its  head 
shows  veins,  and  is  spare  of  flesh ;  eyes  large  and  full 
of  expression,  horns  short  and  usually  in-curving, 
nostrils  generally  large  and  thin.  Its  skin  is  soft, 
firm,  silky  and  pliable.  The  legs  are  clean  and  slim, 
like  those  of  a  race-horse ;  shoulders  high,  back  drop- 
ping below  the  level  of  the  shoulders,  and  gradually 
rising  to  and  back  of  the  hips;  hips  wide  and  high, 
pelvic  arch  prominent.  The  tail,  which  sets  on  well 
forward,  in  contrast  with  the  beef  breeds,  is  long  and 
tapering,  with  heavy  brush  reaching  the  ground. 
The  thighs  are  high  and  incurving,  flank  high  also 
incurving;  milk  veins  large  and  tortuous,  often  enter- 
ing the  body  through  two  and  sometimes  three  open- 
ings to  each  vein.  The  udder  is  capacious,  but  some- 
times inclined  to  be  pendant,  teats  fair  in  size,  occa- 
sionally cone  shaped. 

Jerseys  are  especially  strong  in  prepotency.  The 
grades  usually  show  the  large  butter-fat  globule  of 
rich  golden  color.  They  retain  this  even  after  other 


DAIRY      BREEDS  35 

breed  characteristics  disappear.  For  these  reasons 
the  Jersey  is  an  excellent  animal  for  cross  and  grade 
breeding. 

The  average  production  of  the  Jersey,  in  both 
quantity  of  milk  and  butter,  has  been  increased  in  the 
last  thirty  years.  Then  the  maximum  production  was 
not  much  over  two  pounds  of  butter  daily.  More 
than  twice  that  amount  has  been  produced  from  Jer- 
sey cows  in  the  same  time  within  ten  years.  Three 
hundred  pounds  of  butter  annually  is  not  an  unusual 
yield  from  an  average  Jersey  herd  under  reasonably 
favorable  conditions.  A  well-bred  herd  of  Jerseys 
can  readily  be  brought  to  over  400  pounds  annual 
production  of  butter,  and  from  5,000  to  7,000  pounds 
of  milk  in  365  days.  Individual  records  of  600  to  800 
pounds  are  not  unusual,  and  as  high  as  1,000  pounds 
and  even  more  have  been  produced.  They  are  heavy 
feeders  and  have  great  assimilating  powers,  convert- 
ing food  into  milk  and  butter  at  a  moderate  cost. 
Without  taking  on  flesh,  they  will  convert  more  rich 
food  into  milk  and  butter  fat  than  most  other  breeds. 
They  do  not  fatten  readily  and  are  not  valuable  beef 
producers.  The  owner  must  look  to  milk  and  butter 
for  the  profit. 

It  would  be  pleasant  to  pass  by  the  weaknesses  of 
the  several  breeds;  but  the  dairy  student  and  breeder 
desires  to  be  informed  of  the  weak  as  well  as  the 
strong  points  of  the  breed  into  whose  merits  he  is 
inquiring,  in  order  to  determine  the  feasibility  of  their 
modification.  Like  all  other  breeds,  the  Jersey  has 
its  weak  points.  Bred  in  the  warm  climate  of  the 
Channel  Islands  for  centuries,  it  seems  to  be  less 
hardy  than  some  of  the  more  northern  breeds,  and 


DAIRY    BREEDS  37 

somewhat  more  disposed  to  udder  weakness  and  diffi- 
culties. These  are  attributed  to  the  hundreds  of 
years  of  less  perfect  methods  of  breeding  that  are 
now  applied ;  methods  which  perpetuated  characteris- 
tics of  no  importance  and  even  of  positive  detriment. 
But  American  breeding  and  gradual  acclimatization 
is  slowly  but  steadily  overcoming  these  difficulties. 
In  these  respects  the  Jersey  and  Guernsey  have  much 
in  common. 

A  high-bred  Jersey  cow  and  bull  are  shown  in 
Figs.  4  and  5. 

THE  GUERNSEY* 

The  home  of  the  Guernsey  cow  is  the  Island  of 
Guernsey,  one  of  the  Channel  Islands,  nine  by  four 
miles  in  extent.  The  foundation  of  the  breed  was 
laid  by  crossing  the  large  Red  Normandy  on  the 
Little  Black  Brittany,  or  the  breeds  which  the  early 
settlers  of  the  island  took  there  years  ago.  Since  the 
early  part  of  the  century  stringent  laws  have  been 
enforced  prohibiting  the  importation  of  live  cattle  to 
the  island,  and  the  islanders  have  given  every  atten- 
tion to  the  purity  of  their  breed. 

The  Guernsey  is  the  largest  and  hardiest  of  the 
Channel  Island  breeds.  An  average  Guernsey  cow 
weighs  1,050  pounds  and  bulls  1,600  pounds.  This 
may  be  due  possibly  to  the  fact  that  the  climate  of 
Guernsey  has  induced  the  larger  growth,  heavier 
bone,  and  more  rugged  animal.  They  are  fawn  with 
white  markings,  and  present  an  attractive  and  grace- 
ful appearance.  In  disposition  they  are  kind  and 


^Endorsed  by  WILLIAM  H.  CALDWELL,  Secretary  and  Treas- 
urer American  Guernsey  Cattle  Club. 


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8 


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a 


DAIRY    BREEDS  39 

affectionate,  undoubtedly  due  from  the  fact  that  on 
the  island  they  are  largely  cared  for  by  the  women 
and  children. 

They  have  never  been  inbred  with  an  idea  of  de- 
veloping strains  or  families  or  to  produce  uniformity 
of  color.  They  have  always  been  regarded  as  the 
farmer's  cow.  A  few  animals  were  shipped  to  the 
United  States  about  fifty  years  ago,  but  from  1870  to 
1880  they  began  to  be  introduced  more  frequently, 
and  from  that  time  the  importations  have  been  in 
considerable  numbers. 

In  form  they  are  of  a  pronounced  dairy  type,  so 
much  so  that  the  American  Guernsey  Cattle  Club  in 
their  new  scale  of  points  have  given  95  out  of  100  to 
what  is  recognized  by  the  best  dairy  students  of  the 
country  as  the  ideal  dairy  type  of  a  cow,  leaving  only 
five  points  for  what  is  usually  termed  as  breed  char- 
acteristics. 

The  great  distinguishing  feature  of  the  Guernsey 
is  her  ability  to  produce  cream  or  butter  of  the  deep- 
est yellow  color  and  to  do  so  at  the  least  cost.  This 
has  been  proven  in  public  trials  at  the  experiment 
stations,  and  at  Chicago  and  Buffalo.  At  the  latter 
place  they  showed  the  greatest  profit  in  butter  mak- 
ing over  all  breeds  participating.  Their  large  size, 
attractive  appearance,  high-colored  milk,  cream,  and 
butter,  and  their  quiet  disposition,  has  won  for  them 
many  friends,  and  they  have  steadily  increased  in 
favor  during  recent  years. 

They  were  the  first  breed  to  establish  an  Advanced 
Register  on  the  yearly  record  basis,  and  their  highest 
records  at  present  time  are:  Princess  Rhea  15479, 
Adv.  Reg.  59,  14,009.89  pounds  milk,  775.69  pounds 


DAIRY    BREEDS  4! 

butter  fat.  Hayes  Rosie  15476,  Adv.  Reg.  116,  14,- 
633.08  pounds  milk,  714.31  pounds  butter  fat.  Guern- 
seys can  be  expected  to  produce  from  8,000  to  10,000 
pounds  of  milk  and  from  350  to  500  pounds  of  butter 
fat  in  an  ordinarily  fed  and  kept  dairy. 

One  great  ability  of  the  Guernsey  is  to  stamp  her 
qualifications  in  the  grading  up  of  a  dairy  herd,  and 
through  the  dairy  sections  of  the  East  and  West  the 
Guernsey  grade  will  be  found  standing  high  in  favor 
and  commanding  $5  to  $10  a  head  more  in  the 
market. 

Figs.  6  and  7  show  fine  specimens  of  this  breed. 

THE  AYRSHIRE* 

The  origin  of  the  Ayrshire,  like  that  of  most  other 
breeds,  is  lost  in  tradition.  But  this  is  of  little  conse- 
quence to  the  American  dairyman ;  the  important  ques- 
tion with  him  is :  "  What  can  she  do?  "  The  County  of 
Ayr,  in  the  southwestern  part  of  Scotland,  is  for 
the  most  part  undulating  and  hilly.  For  a  century, 
perhaps  much  longer,  this  has  been  the  home  of  the 
Ayrshire  cow.  The  first  specimens  of  this  breed  im- 
ported into  the  United  States  arrived  in  1822,  and  the 
breed  has  been  three-quarters  of  a  century  in  build- 
ing up  to  its  present  degree  of  perfection.  The  ear- 
liest importations  were  brought  to  New  York  State. 
Eight  years  later  New  England  secured  some 
animals,  and  in  1837  others  were  introduced  into 
Canada. 


*  I  think  this  a  good  article,  candid  and  not  overdrawn  in 
either  praise  or  criticism.  I  see  no  occasion  to  offer  any  sug- 
gestions.— C.  M.  WINSLOW,  Secretary  Ayrshire  Breeders' 
Association. 


42  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

Ayrshires  have  for  many  years  been  highly  es- 
teemed both  in  this  country  and  in  Scotland  as  milk 
and  butter  producers.  Their  natural  hardiness  and 
muscular  development,  increased  by  breeding  and  by 
lives  spent  in  a  hilly  country,  have  adapted  them  for 
foraging  on  all  sorts  of  land;  their  feeding  and  di- 
gestive powers  and  hardiness  have  fitted  them  for 
most  parts  of  the  United  States.  While  capable  of 
enduring  the  hardships  that  would  overcome  cows 
of  most  other  breeds,  they  respond  readily  to  good 
treatment  in  an  increase  of  production  of  both  flesh 
and  milk.  Cold  and  storms  affect  Ayrshires  less 
than  most  other  breeds.  For  persistence  of  flow  un- 
der adverse  conditions  they  are  surpassed  by  none. 

Ayrshires,  like  all  other  well-bred  milch  cattle,  are 
of  a  nervous  temperament;  under  kind  usage  they  are 
docile  and  tractable  but  are  quick  to  resent  insult 
or  abuse.  Bulls  when  properly  managed  rarely  be- 
come ugly.  The  Ayrshire  cow  has  been  bred  and 
developed  with  a  view  to  the  production  of  an  ani- 
mal which  will  economically  convert  feed  into  milk 
and  butter.  She  is  a  good  feeder,  and  is  an  example 
of  the  Scotch  adage :  "  The  cow  gives  her  milk  by  the 
mou."  She  is  well  adapted  to  the  production  for 
town  market,  where  a  liberal  flow  of  milk  reasonably 
rich  in  butter  fat  and  solids  is  desirable. 

Usually  the  color  is  red  and  white,  occasionally 
brown.  Canadian  breeders  have  bred  toward  the 
white;  Americans  have  preferred  red.  Among  dairy 
cattle,  Ayrshires  are  of  average  size.  The  bulls  attain  a 
weight  of  from  1,400  to  1,800  pounds,  1,500  to  1,600 
being  the  desirable  sizes.  The  larger  types  are  prone 
to  develop  beef  tendencies.  The  cows  weigh  from 


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3 

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44  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

900  to  1,100  pounds,  1,000  being  the  average.  When 
in  milk,  they  carry  no  superfluous  flesh.  They  are 
wedge-shaped,  have  a  thin  neck  and  head,  slender 
muzzle,  large,  bright,  and  expressive  eyes,  are  quick 
in  movement,  and  have  the  appearance  of  extreme 
watchfulness. 

The  udder  is  remarkably  square  and  blocky.  It  is 
well  up  in  front  and  behind,  rarely  low  and  swinging. 
When  not  distended  with  milk,  the  udders  are  not 
remarkably  prominent;  but  when  well  filled,  they  are 
especially  large  and  well  formed.  A  yield  of  6,000 
pounds  of  milk  is  an  average  for  the  breed  in  good 
hands  with  fair  treatment  and  feed ;  for  whole  herds, 
7,000  to  8,000  pounds  is  not  unusual.  A  not  uncom- 
mon annual  yield  for  an  Ayrshire  is  10,000  pounds; 
some  have  reached  14,000  pounds  in  365  consecutive 
days.  Individual  production  of  14  pounds  of  butter 
a  week  is  not  at  all  unusual.  Members  of  the  breed 
have  produced  28  pounds  in  seven  days.  The  average 
of  butter  fat  is  not  far  from  4  per  cent.  The  butter- 
fat  globule  of  the  Ayrshire  is  smaller  than  that  of 
the  Jersey  or  Guernsey,  and  it  does  not  cream  so 
readily.  It  is  also  lighter  in  color.  Members  of  the 
breed  have  produced  607  pounds  of  butter  in  a  year. 

In  buying  Ayrshires,  care  needs  to  be  taken  to 
avoid  short  teats.  Most  American  breeders  have  been 
successful  in  eradicating  this  defect.  There  is  per- 
haps no  breed  more  nearly  exempt  from  diseases  of 
the  udder  than  the  Ayrshire.  In  breeding  and  milk- 
ing Ayrshire  cows  for  the  last  twenty  years  the 
writer  has  never  had  a  case  of  defective  teats  or  ud- 
ders in  a  herd  of  from  twenty  to  thirty  cows. 

Typical  specimen  Ayrshires  are  seen  in  Figs.  8 
and  9. 


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46  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

THE  HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN  * 

It  is  generally  conceded  that  the  breed  known  in 
America  as  Holstein-Friesian  cattle  originated  in  the 
country  bordering  on  the  North  Sea.  They  have 
been  known  by  the  name  of  "  Holland  Cattle/' 
"North  Hollanders,"  "Dutch,"  "  Dutch-Friesians," 
"  Netherlands,"  etc.  They  are  strongly  marked  black 
and  white,  and  are  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  notable 
of  the  dairy  breeds.  For  centuries  they  have  been 
bred  and  developed  for  the  production  of  milk  and 
supplying  of  food  in  the  shape  of  veal  and  beef. 
Histor)  shows  that  they  can  be  traced  back  for  more 
than  two  thousand  years,  continuously  occupying  the 
same  countries. 

The  animals  are  larger  than  any  other  recognized 
dairy  breed,  and  equal  the  Shorthorns.  The  cows 
weigh  from  1,200  to  1,600  pounds,  and  the  bulls  from 
i, 600  to  2,000  pounds,  often  more.  Their  frame  is 
symmetrical,  large,  strong,  and  bony.  When  not  in  milk 
they  take  on  a  liberal  amount  of  flesh.  The  Holland- 
ers are  very  proud  and  fond  of  their  cattle,  and  give 
them  every  advantage  in  both  breeding  and  environ- 
ment. Few  importations  of  this  breed  into  the  United 
States  were  made  prior  to  1850.  Beginning  with 
1880,  they  began  to  be  imported  in  considerable  num- 
bers. Since  then  they  have  rapidly  increased,  and  are 
now  to  be  found  in  nearly  every  part  of  the  country. 

A  prominent  characteristic  of  this  breed  is  the 
color,  which  affords  a  striking  contrast  of  jet  black 
with  pure  white.  In  some  animals  black  predomi- 
nates ;  in  others,  white.  The  cattle  are  rarely,  if  ever, 
of  solid  color.  Some  have  been  nearly  all  white.  As 

*  Revised  by  F.  L.  HOUGHTON,  Secretary  of  the  Holstem- 
Friesian  Association. 


DAIRY      BREEDS 


47 


in  the  Ayrshire,  the  dividing  outlines  of  the  color  are 
irregular ;  the  black  and  white  are  never  mixed ;  each 
is  clearly  marked  and  defined  from  the  other.  The 
neck  is  long,  and  fine  and  clean  at  juncture  with  the 
head;  the  head  slim  and  spare  of  flesh;  legs  com- 
paratively short,  clean,  and  nearly  straight;  tail  long, 
and  tapering  finely  to  full  switch.  The  udder  is  often 
of  extraordinary  size,  well  up  in  front  and  behind. 


FIG.     IO HOLSTEIN    FRIESIAN    BULL      HENGERVELD 

DE  KOL" 

Teats  are  of  large  size,  milk  veins  large,   tortuous, 
and  prominent. 

The  breed  is  famous  for  milk  production.  It  is 
not  uncommon  for  the  Holstein  to  produce  her  own 
weight  in  milk  in  thirty  days,  and  from  ten  to  twelve 
times  her  weight  in  a  year.  Individual  productions 
of  over  100  pounds  of  milk  in  a  day  are  well  authen- 
ticated. From  8,000  to  11,000  pounds  is  not  an 


48  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

unusual  average  for  a  herd.  There  are  many  records 
of  herds  of  from  three  to  eight  years  of  age  averag- 
ing 11,000  pounds  each  for  one  year.  One  cow 
owned  at  Cuba,  N.  Y.,  is  known  to  have  produced 
30,318  pounds  of  milk  in  365  days.  The  percentage 
of  butter  fat  is  from  3  to  4.5  per  cent.  There  are, 
however,  many  families  of  Holsteins  that  have  made 
phenomenal  butter  records.  One  cow  has  a  well- 
attested  yield  of  1,153  pounds  of  butter  in  a  year. 
This  is  the  largest  yield  known  up  to  the  date  of  this 
writing. 

While  every  breed  of  cattle  may  have  its  special 
adaptations  and  its  special  field  in  which  it  is  most 
profitable,  no  other  breed  has  spread  so  widely  in 
those  countries  where  no  artificial  barriers  have  been 
erected.  The  Ayrshire  breed  is  scarcely  known  out- 
side the  British  Islands ;  the  Jerseys  and  Guernseys 
are  not  found  to  any  extent  upon  the  Continent;  the 
Shorthorn  is  limited  to  a  few  localities  in  Belgium, 
France,  Germany,  while  the  Holstein-Friesian  breed, 
with  its  offshoots  under  various  names,  is  everywhere 
the  prevailing  breed  in  the  lowlands  of  France,  Bel- 
gium, Holland,  and  the  western  provinces  of  Ger- 
many. 

Where  the  pastures  are  moist  and  nearly  level  the 
Holstein  is  at  her  best.  She  is,  under  such  circum- 
stances, the  superior  of  any  cow  bred  at  the  present 
time  in  the  production  of  quantity  of  milk  and  milk 
solids.  She  does,  however,  readily  adapt  herself  to 
side-hill  pastures,  and  under  all  circumstances  is  a 
large  and  profitable  producer  for  butter  or  cheese 
making  or  the  production  of  milk  for  city  use. 

The  Holstein  cow  Jamaica,  No.  1336,  H.  H.  R.,  is 


W 
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SO  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

worthy  of  special  mention.  She  came  in  in  1882 
as  a  two-year-old,  and  in  her  first  year  produced 
7,450  pounds  of  milk.  Her  first  month's  production 
exceeded  all  former  productions  for  the  age.  In 
January,  1884,  she  produced  73  pounds  a  day.  In 
the  following  month  she  increased  to  112  pounds  2 
ounces  in  one  day.  She  gave  535  pounds  in  five  days, 
and  for  a  whole  month  averaged  100  pounds  a  day. 
The  owner  of  this  cow  was  offered  $15,000  for  her 
and  her  calf  before  she  made  her  greatest  record. 
After  that  event  the  offer  was  increased  to  $25,000 
for  the  cow  and  $10,000  for  the  calf.  Such  produc- 
tions are  not  the  work  of  chance,  but  the  result  of  in- 
telligent breeding  and  painstaking  care  in  the  devel- 
opment of  the  heifer  and  the  cow. 

The  bull  Hengerveld  de  Kol  (Fig.  10)  and  the  cow 
Jollie  Johanna  (Fig.  n)  are  splendid  representatives 
of  this  breed. 

THE    SHORTHORN    OR    DURHAM* 

The  Durhams,  now  generally  known  as  Shorthorns, 
were  among  the  first  of  the  high-bred  cattle  to  be 
brought  to  the  United  States.  They  have  been  longer 
known  to  the  breeder  than  any  other  dairy  breed. 
Soon  after  the  Revolution  a  few  cattle,  supposed  to 
be  Shorthorns,  were  brought  to  Virginia.  They  are 
said  to  have  been  well-fleshed  animals  and  the  cows 
remarkable  for  their  milk  production,  some  of  them 
producing  over  thirty  quarts  of  milk  a  day.  In  1797 


*Verified  by  JOHN  W.  GROVES,  Secretary  American  Short- 
horn Breeders'  Association. 


o 
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fc 

§ 


H 
CO 


O 

E 


52  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

some  of  them  were  introduced  in  Kentucky  by  a  Mr. 
Patton,  and  were  known  as  the  "  Patton  Stock." 
They  were  used  as  breeders,  and  their  strain  decidedly 
improved  the  cattle  in  the  blue  grass  region.  For 
many  years  the  Shorthorn  was  bred  in  the  United 
States  as  a  milk  producer.  Among  their  number 
were  found  some  of  the  finest  specimens  of  milk 
producers  in  this  country.  About  the  middle  of  the 
last  century  many  breeders  of  Shorthorns  began  to 
direct  their  efforts  toward  developing  the  beef  ten- 
dencies of  the  breed,  and  this  class  of  cattle  came  to 
be  recognized  as  among  the  very  best  in  that  respect. 
The  result  was  that  their  reputation  of  milk  and  but- 
ter producers  was  somewhat  overshadowed. 

They  have  splendid  constitutions,  and  stand  unsur- 
passed in  their  ability  to  assimilate  food  profitably  for 
beef  production.  For  the  last  quarter  of  a  century 
many  dairymen  among  the  admirers  of  the  Short- 
horns have  been  developing  the  dairy  type.  To-day 
there  are  many  herds  doing  fine  work  as  dairy  cattle. 
Kitty  Clay,  fourth,  bred  in  New  York,  owned  in 
Bradford  County,  Pennsylvania,  was  the  champion 
butter-producing  cow  in  the  great  test  in  Chicago  in 
1893.  In  the  thirty  days'  trial  her  yield  was  1,593 
pounds  of  milk  which  made  62l/2  pounds  of  btitter. 
As  a  two-year-old  she  produced  28  pounds  of  milk 
a  day,  and  5  1-3  pounds  of  butter.  In  1895  she 
produced  5,000  pounds  of  milk  in  three  months,  her 
best  being  65  pounds  a  day.  Her  son  at  five  years 
weighed  2,080  pounds.  His  dressed  four  quarters 
weighed  1,456  pounds.  Kitty's  weight  at  ten  years 
old  was  1,348  pounds.  The  Shorthorns  are  the 


54  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

largest  of  the  dairy  breeds,  if  not  of  all  breeds. 
They  are  more  quiet  and  less  nervous  than  most 
of  the  dairy  cattle.  Their  hardy  constitutions 
tend  to  make  them  persistent  milkers.  There 
are  several  herds  in  the  United  States  that  have 
averaged  from  6,500  to  7,500  pounds  of  milk  per 
cow.  Single  cows  have  produced  from  10,000  to 
12,000  pounds  annually. 

Calves  from  the  Shorthorn  cow  form  an  important 
product  of  the  dairy  where  skimmed  milk  is  utilized 
in  their  feed.  The  males  usually  take  on  flesh  read- 
ily,  and  are  among  the  most  profitable  feeders  and 
consumers  of  skimmed  milk  and  other  products 
adapted  to  their  use.  They  are  supposed  to  be  de- 
scendants of  the  old  Teeswater  breed,  and  have  been 
known  as  "  Durhams,"  "  Teeswater,"  "  Yorkshire," 
and  "  Holderness." 

They  are,  perhaps,  found  on  the  Western  ranches 
in  greater  numbers  than  any  other  breed.  Breeders  in 
that  section  of  country  have,  by  selection,  produced 
finer  specimens  than  are  to  be  found  to-day  in  Eng- 
land, the  native  home  of  the  Shorthorn.  Their  present 
improved  form  is  largely  due  to  the  skillful  breeding 
of  Robert  and  Charles  Colling,  of  England,  who 
brought  them  into  a  new  era  of  fame  and  prosperity. 
Single  specimens  of  the  breed  have  reached  consid- 
erably over  3,000  pounds.  One  pair  of  Shorthorn  oxen 
owned  in  Steuben  County,  New  York,  weighed  near- 
ly 6,500  pounds,  and  there  was  less  than  50  pounds 
difference  in  their  weight.  The  milk  strains  of  this 
breed  are  rnore  rangy  and  angular  in  form  than  the 
beef  types.  The  udders  are  large,  teats  good  size, 


DAIRY      BREEDS  55 

skin  soft  and  oily  to  the  touch.     The  hair  is  usually 
short  and  fine. 

Typical   Shorthorns  are  seen  in  Figs.    12  and   13. 

NOTE. — For  much  of  the  foregoing  historical  in- 
formation I  am  indebted  to  the  late  Prof.  Henry  E. 
Alvord,  of  the  Dairy  Division,  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Ani- 
mal Industry,  and  Periam  and  Baker's  valuable  work. 


CHAPTER  VI 


SELECTION  OF  A  BREED 

IN  selecting  a  breed  the  question  to  be  answered 
is  not  how  much  some  individual  cow  of  the  breed 
has  produced,  but  what  is  the  average  product  per 
cow  of  the  breed  under  environment  similar  to  that 
of  the  proposed  herd.  The  purchaser  must  not  lose 
sight  of  individual  merit  in  the  cow  he  is  purchasing, 
as  well  as  that  of  her  immediate  ancestors  on  both 
sides. 

A  man  who  expects  to  follow  dairying  as  a  busi- 
ness needs  to  employ  the  same  enterprise  that  he 
would  in  any  other  business.  It  should  be  governed 
by  the  same  rules  that  control  trade  generally.  Less- 
ening the  cost  of  production  and  improving  the  qual- 
ity of  the  product,  in  this,  as  in  every  other  business, 
must  be  leading  principles.  The  sole  purpose  in  keep- 
ing the  cow  is  for  the  conversion  of  feed  into  milk, 
butter,  cheese,  etc.,  at  a  profit.  The  use  of  paper  and 
pencil  will,  in  a  moment,  show  the  farmer  the  differ- 
ence in  producing  value  to  him  between  the  cow  that 
produces  200  pounds  of  butter  in  a  year  and  the  one 
that,  with  the  same  care  and  feed,  will  produce  300 
pounds.  In  ten  years  at  20  cents  a  pound  he  would 
be  $200  in  pocket.  An  equal  difference  exists  be- 
tween the  cow  producing  4,000  pounds  of  milk  and 
the  one  producing  6,000  pounds  per  annum.  Dairy- 
men of  to-day  have  at  hand  the  results  of  the  labor 
of  generations  of  careful  and  skilled  breeders  in  the 
56 


SELECTION    OF    A    BREED  57 

development  of  the  specially  bred  cow.  Such  cows 
are  now  so  plentiful  and  so  easily  secured,  there  is  no ' 
longer  any  excuse  for  the  existence  of  the  scrub  cow. 
She  is  rapidly  becoming  a  thing  of  the  past.  While 
we  cherish  a  kindly  feeling  for  her  memory,  there 
will  be  none  to  mourn  her  loss. 

In  building  up  a  herd,  a  dairyman  must  decide 
upon  what  branch  of  dairying  he  purposes  to  enter. 
In  butter  making  he  desires  the  cow  that  will,  at  the 
least  cost,  reduce  feed  to  butter  fat  without  regard  to 
quantity  of  flow.  If  cheese,  or  condensed  milk,  then 
the  cow  that  will  best  meet  his  requirements,  whether 
for  quantity  alone,  or  quality  and  quantity  combined. 
If  for  city  or  village  delivery  or  special  customers, 
where  milk  reasonably  rich  in  cream  and  butter  fat 
as  well  as  quantity  is  important,  still  another  kind  of 
cow  should  be  selected. 

ADVANTAGES  OF  SPECIAL  BREEDING 

The  great  advantage  of  the  specially  bred  cow  that 
has  in  her  veins  the  results  of  generations  of  breeding 
in  a  single  direction  is  the  prepotent  power  thus  im- 
parted, the  power  to  impart  to  her  offspring  the  same 
qualities  which  she  has  inherited  from  her  ancestors. 
In  this  she  greatly  excels  the  ordinary  native  cow. 
As  .shown  by  results,  cows  one-half,  three-fourths,  or 
seven-eights  bred  have  a  much  greater  proportion  of 
the  qualities  of  the  full  blood  ancestors  in  their  veins. 
The  tendency  to  what  is  known  as.  back  breeding  is 
much  greater  than  is  generally  supposed.  The 
chances  are  more  than  one  in  two  that  an  animal 
will  go  back  two  or  three  generations  for  its  pre- 
dominating qualities.  * 


58  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

In  breeding  up  a  herd  it  must  be  remembered  that 
the  bull  is  half  the  herd.  As  a  rule  he  is  more  than 
that.  The  breeder  should  never  allow  a  few  dollars 
difference  to  stand  between  him  and  the  animal  he 
thinks  will  make  a  satisfactory  head  to  his  herd.  If 
he  be  financially  able  to  do  so,  he  will,  of  course, 
stock  up  his  herd  with  the  breed  of  his  selection ;  but 
if  not,  he  will  proceed  to  build  up  the  herd. 

Having  selected  the  breed  best  adapted  to  his  pur- 
pose, the  dairyman  will  secure  the  best  pedigreed  bull 
he  can  find — one  whose  form  and  general  make-up 
stamp  his  as  a  getter  of  dairy  stock.  No  greater 
error  can  be  made  than  to  allow  mere  size  to  control 
in  his  selection.  As  a  rule,  overgrowth  is  a  mark  of 
lack  of  dairy  quality  instead  of  merit.  Under  its 
appropriate  head,  "  Dairy  Form,"  this  will  be  further 
treated.  He  must  select  the  best  quality  of  cows  he 
can  secure,  native  or  otherwise,  and  upon  them  use 
the  bull  selected. 

No  bull  should  be  used  before  he  is  sixteen  or 
eighteen  months  old.  From  the  heifers  of  this  get 
the  strongest  and  most  promising  (which  does  not 
always  mean  the  largest)  are  to  be  bred  again  to 
their  sire.  The  get  of  this  cross  may  again  be 
crossed  from  the  same  bull  if  he  has  proved  to  be  a 
getter  of  good,  vigorous  stock.  This  latter  get  will 
then  be  three-fourths  blood.  Many  successful  breed- 
ers have  made  still  another  cross  upon  the  same  sire 
with  good  results.  I  am  aware  that  this  advice  is 
contrary  to  generally  accepted  ideas  of  successful 
breeding,  and  is  branded  as  incestuous  breeding. 
This  prejudice  is  purely  a  matter  of  sentiment  and  is 
not  founded  upon  fact.  On  the  plains  it  is  a  well- 


SELECTION    OF    A    BREED  59 

known  fact  that  among  the  cattle  and  horses  the 
strongest  takes  the  herd  and  remains  at  its  head  until 
a  stronger  conquers  him. 

In  thus  closely  inbreeding,  care  should  be  used. 
The  direct  result  is  concentration  of  the  qualities  of 
the  sire,  bad  as  well  as  good.  If  the  sire  be  possessed 
of  a  marked  weakness  in  any  direction,  this  quality 
is  likely  to  appear  in  the  offspring  in  an  increased 
degree.  When  found  objectionable,  inbreeding  should 
be  stopped,  and  another  bull  selected  possessing  as 
far  as  possible  the  same  breed  characteristics,  and  the 
breeding  continued  on  the  same  line.  This  is  called 
breeding  in  line,  arid  is  the  only  safe  manner  in  which 
to  develop  a  herd.  By  discarding  the  poorest  and 
selecting  the  best,  by  the  time  fifteen-sixteenths 
bloods  are  obtained  the  owner  will  have  a  herd  which 
will  serve  his  purpose  quite  as  well  as  full  bloods. 

Except  as  a  matter  of  necessity,  no  cow  that  has 
been  in  milk  should  be  purchased  unless  the  buyer 
has  a  thorough  personal  knowledge  of  her.  Intelli- 
gent dairymen  do  not  part  with  their  best  cows  for  a 
price  below  what  they  regard  them  to  be  worth. 
They  know  the  animals'  qualities,  peculiarities,  faults, 
and  characteristics.  They  know  whether  an  animal  is 
nervous,  a  poor  feeder,  uncertain,  likely  to  dry  off 
too  easily,  and  all  the  other  conditions  affecting  her 
value.  If  the  buyer  does  not  know  these  things  he  is 
at  a  disadvantage.  If,  however,  he  can  learn  the 
qualities  of  the  dam  and  the  sire  and  their  ancestors 
he  has  a  better  knowledge  of  the  conformation  of  the 
dairy  cow  than  the  man  from  whom  he  is  buying;  he 
has  in  the  purchase  of  heifers  that  have  never  been  in 
milk  at  least  an  equal  footing  with  the  man  from 


6O  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

whom  he  buys.  A  first-class  heifer  can  be  bought, 
before  she  has  come  fresh,  dollars  and  dollars  cheaper 
than  after  the  owner  has  milked  her  for  a  season  and 
has  learned  her  true  value.  It  is  safer  to  buy  the 
heifer  before  the  owner  has  learned  her  virtues  and 
vices  than  after. 

CROSS-BREEDING 

More  valuable  time  is  lost  by  those  seeking  to 
build  up  a  herd  for  special  purpose  in  pursuing  that 
ignis  fatuus,  the  "  general  purpose  cow/'  than  in  any 
other  way.  It  takes  from  four  to  eight  years  to 
breed  a  cow  of  any  specified  quality.  This  is  too 
large  a  part  of  a  lifetime  to  be  lost  in  mere  experi- 
ment. 

Crossing  a  beef  breed  with  a  milk  or  butter  breed 
neutralizes  the  best  qualities  of  both.  The  result 
of  years  of  effort  is  lost  in  the  cross.  The  writer, 
after  years  of  investigation  and  study,  has  ventured 
upon  one  cross,  that  of  an  Ayrshire  father  upon  a 
Jersey  mother.  Both  are  bred  for  milk  and  butter. 
The  Jersey  for  butter,  and  the  Ayrshire  for  milk  and 
butter.  The  breeds  have  much  in  common.  The 
strong  points  of  the  one  seem  to  supply  the  weak 
points  of  the  other.  The  Ayrshire  is  possessed  of 
a  strong  constitution  and  excellent  digestive  powers. 
Its  butter-fat  globule  is  small,  light  in  color,  and 
does  not  cream  as  readily  as  that  of  the  Jersey. 
That  of  the  Jersey  is  large,  creams  readily,  is  high 
in  color,  and  produces  an  excellent  quality  of  but- 
ter. The  prepotency  of  the  Jersey  is  strongest  in 
this  direction;  that  of  the  Ayrshire  in  imparting 
strong  constitution  and  excellent  digestive  powers. 


SELECTION    OF    A    BREED  6l 

I  learned  of  two  herds  in  Massachusetts  of  the 
cross-bred  Jersey- Ayrshire  that  were  averaging  400 
pounds  of  butter  a  year  per  cow.  Acting  upon  this 
information,  I  procured  some  of  the  best  Jersey 
cows  I  could  find  and  used  them  with  a  bull  of 
satisfactory  ancestry.  The  result  has  been  heifers 
of  a  remarkably  uniform  quality  in  production. 
Eighteen  of  twenty  heifers  were  perfectly  satisfac- 
tory milkers;  and,  barring  the  cow  Daisy,  here- 
after referred  to,  have  proved  themselves  the  best 
butter  producers  I  have  ever  owned.  Their  milk 
production  is  from  30  to  50  per  cent,  increase  over 
that  of  the  full-blood  mothers,  with  quality  but 
slightly  inferior  thereto.  For  family  use  they  are 
superior  cows.  They  are  attractive  in  appearance. 
So  far  as  I  have  been  able  to  learn,  this  is  the  only 
successful  cross  of  dairy  cattle  that  has  been  made. 
The  cross  of  the  Jersey  with  the  Holstein  has  pro- 
duced some  excellent  cows,  but  the  cross,  generally 
speaking,  is  worse  than  a  failure.  The  types  are  op- 
posite in  almost  every  respect.  The  prepotent  quali- 
ties of  both  breeds  are  lost  in  the  cross.  The  cross 
of  Jersey,  Guernsey,  or  Holstein  with  the  beef  breeds 
is  equally  unsatisfactory.  Steady  and  persistent 
breeding  in  one  line  and  for  a  single  purpose  is  the 
only  safe  rule  for  a  dairyman  to  follow. 

After  having  raised  the  standard  of  a  herd  by 
careful  breeding  comes  the  final  and  crucial  test — to 
wit,  individual  selection.  It  is,  after  all,  capacity  of 
the  individual  demonstrated  by  actual  test  that  fixes 
the  standard  of  the  dairy  cow.  By  breeding  the 
average  the  general  chances  may  be  vastly  in- 


62  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

creased,  and  from  the  stock  thus  produced  the  cows 
for  dairy  work  should  be  selected. 

As  assistants  in  making  selections  the  scales  and 
the  Babcock  test  are  indispensable.  They  are  to 
the  dairyman  what  the  scales  are  to  the  grocer  and 
the  yardstick  to  the  merchant.  They  are  impartial. 
They  fix  the  value  of  the  cow  as  a  part  of  the  herd 
with  inflexible  accuracy.  The  cream  test  is  better 
than  none,  but  it  is  so  variable  and  uncertain  that 
it  is  of  little  value.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  find  cows 
whose  cream  is  twice  as  rich  in  butter  fat  as  that 
of  some  others.  I  have  known  the  difference  to  be 
so  great  that  it  took  two  and  one-half  quarts  of  one 
cow's  cream  to  furnish  the  same  amount  of  butter 
fat  as  contained  in  one  quart  of  cream  from 
another. 

The  milk  of  each  cow  should  be  weighed  on  the 
same  day  of  each  week.  At  the  end  of  the  year  these 
weights  will  have  a  basis  which  will  give  a  practical- 
ly accurate  result.  The  butter-fat  test  should  be 
used  once  in  two  months.  The  data  derived  from 
these  two  tests  will  tell  what  the  cow  has  done  and 
is  worth.  The  fat  test  should  be  of  a  mixture  of 
samples  taken  from  four  consecutive  milkings.  A 
case  made  to  hold  eight  or  ten  numbered  eight- 
ounce  bottles,  each  one  used  for  a  cow,  is  a  handy 
means  of  lightening  the  labor  of  testing.  An  ounce 
capacity  tin  cup  may  be  used  to  take  samples  from 
the  milking  to  put  in  the  bottles.  Every  time  a 
sample  is  added  it  should  be  mixed  thoroughly 
with  what  is  already  in  the  bottle.  In  a  book  ar- 
ranged for  the  purpose  a  record  of  these  tests 
must  be  kept. 


CHAPTER  VII 


THE  DAIRY  COW  AND  THE    DAIRY  SIRE 

YEARS  of  breeding  and  of  development  in  oppo- 
site directions  have  made  the  beef  and  dairy  type 
almost  distinct  species.  Among  skilled  stock  raisers 
one-half  the  individual  characteristics  of  an  animal 
are  attributed  to  heredity,  the  other  half  to  environ- 
ment. This  latter  part  is  the  result  of  feed  and  sur- 
roundings, for  which  the  owner  is  responsible. 

The  beef  animal  is  possessed  of  a  strong,  vigor- 
ous external  circulation  developed  to  convert  the 
elements  of  food  into  flesh,  and  place  this  on  the 
ribs,  etc.  The  milk  and  butter  cow  has  a  strong, 
vigorous  internal  circulation  fitted  to  convert  food 
elements  into  butter  fat,  casein,  etc.,  and  deposit 
these  in  the  udder.  The  milk  veins  are  the  external 
evidence,  and  to  a  great  extent  a  measure  of  the 
capacity  of  this  internal  circulatory  power.  In  the 
beef  breeds  this  feature  is  deficient.  To  be  other* 
wise  would  condemn  a  cow  of  the  beef  breed  as  a 
producer  of  good  beef  stock. 

THE  DAIRY  COW 

The  milk  veins  of  a  dairy  cow  are  well  developed. 
There  is  often  a  difference  among  breeds  and  be- 
tween individual  cows  of  equal  capacity,  but  in  a 
first-class  dairy  cow  these  veins  are  always  well  de- 
veloped. They  enter  the  body  well  forward  in  large 

63 


64  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

openings,  and  among  the  best  of  the  Jerseys  and 
.  Guernseys  there  are  often  two  and  sometimes  three  of 
these  openings  of  branches  that  will  admit  the  end  of 
the  finger.  This  strong  interior  circulation  character- 
istic of  the  dairy  breeds  is  always  at  the  cost  of  the 
exterior  circulation.  It  is  a  rare  thing  for  a  producer 
of  large  quantities  of  rich  milk  to  be  otherwise  than 
thin  in  flesh.  The  cow  Daisey  (Fig.  14)  was  a 
cross-bred  Jersey-Guernsey  weighing  1,100  pounds. 
Her  annual  milk  production  was  over  10,000  pounds 
of  5  per  cent,  fat  milk.  She  had  good  average  pas- 
ture and  only  a  fair  grain  feed,  at  no  time  exceeding 
twelve  pounds  daily.  When  in  milk  she  was  never 
in  better  condition  than  she  appears  in  the  picture. 
Her  maximum  production  was  forty-five  pounds  a 
day. 

Note  the  make-up  as  applicable  to  the  dairy  cow — 
muzzle  slim ;  upper  lip  large,  coming  well  down ;  nos- 
trils wide  and  open;  face,  from  end  of  nose  to  top  of 
head,  dishing;  the  same  between  the  eyes;  eye  large 
and  expressive;  head  devoid  of  flesh  and  the  veins 
standing  out  clear  and  distinct ;  neck  thin  and  well  cut 
up  under  the  chops  (the  loose  skin  partially  conceals 
this  in*  the  picture)  ;  shoulders,  at  the  top  thin  and 
sharp,  slightly  above  the  line  of  the  back;  back  drop- 
ping slightly  down  behind  the  shoulders;  hips  high, 
prominent  and  wide  apart;  pelvic  arch,  just  back  of 
hips,  well  arched,  prominent,  and  distinct;  tail  long 
and  slim,  but  firm  and  strong  where  it  joins  the  body, 
heavy  brush  at  the  end,  setting  on  well  front  instead 
of  back,  as  in  the  beef  type ;  skin  loose  but  firm,  flex- 
ible, and  thin ;  neck  setting  in  the  body  at  a  sharp 
angle  instead  of  by  rounded,  graceful  lines,  as  in  the 


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66  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

beef  type;  shoulders  pointed  and  projecting  well  in 
front,  almost  to  an  apparent  deformity ;  legs  wide  and 
thin,  but  firm,  nervy,  and  strong,  with  veins  standing 
out  clearly;  flank  well  arched  and  devoid  of  fatty 
tissue;  same  from  hock  to  root  of  tail;  udder  well 
front  and  well  up  behind ;  escutcheon  distinctly 
marked,  running  to  and  above  the  vulva;  general 
loose,  open  conformation,  characteristic  of  the  true 
dairy  type;  milk  veins  large  and  tortuous. 

Daisey  when  fourteen  years  of  age,  was  still  do- 
ing excellent  work.  While  she  was  not  so  much  of  the 
wedge  shape  as  most  breeders  like  to  see,  she  com- 
bined as  many  dairy  qualities  as  any  cow  I  have  ever 
seen.  Among  these  is  the  ability  to  produce  milk 
and  butter  fat.  She  was  good  for  600  pounds  of  but- 
ter and  10,000  pounds  of  milk  annually.  She  gave 
twenty-five  pounds  of  milk  within  ten  minutes  of  the 
taking  of  the  picture.  She  was  the  result  of  no  mere 
accident,  but  of  persistent  breeding  for  a  special  pur- 
pose. She  came  from  a  long  line  of  butter  and  milk 
producers. 

SELECTION   OF   THE   SIRE 

Much  has  been  said  about  "heifer  neck"  in  bulls, 
but  the  same  leading  feature  should  appear  in  the 
bull  as  in  the  cow.  The  neck  should  show  strong 
masculinity  and  constitution,  but  be  at  the  same  time 
clear  and  distinct  from  the  beef  type.  Dairy  marks 
and  make-up,  instead  of  size,  should  rule  in  the  selec- 
tion, whether  in  buying  to  improve  the  herd  or  sell- 
ing to  weed  it  out. 

Note  the  form  of  John  Webb,  (Fig.  15)  Ayrshire 
Bull  No.  5180  Ayrshire  Herd  Book,  Chief  Alvord,  of 


68  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

the  Dairy  Division  of  Animal  Industry,  Department  of 
Agriculture  at  Washington,  selected  him  as  the 
finest  specimen  of  the  Ayrshire  male  he  was  able  to 
secure.  Hoard's  Dairyman,  in  speaking  of  him,  says : 
"  We  are  pleased  to  present  our  readers  with  an  en- 
graving of  a  fine  Ayrshire  bull.  ...  It  is  rarely 
we  have  an  opportunity  to  present  a  more  perfect 
dairy  form  and  quality  than  is  here  seen  in  this  Ayr- 
shire bull  John  Webb.  His  weight  is  1,400  pounds." 
Compare  this  bull  with  Daisey.  These  animals,  rep- 
resentative of  the  two  sexes  and  of  two  different 
breeds,  have  all  the  leading  dairy  marks  in  common — 
namely,  clean,  thin  nostrils;  thin  overreaching  upper 
lip;  high,  thin  shoulders,  sharp  and  prominent  in 
front ;  slightly  incurving  spine ;  high,  wide,  sharp  hip 
bones;  prominent  pelvic  arch;  front  setting  of  tail, 
strong  at  roots,  but  long,  slim,  and  with  heavy  brush ; 
veins  on  head  and  legs  clear  and  distinct;  legs  wide, 
flat,  thin,  muscular  as  a  race-horse ;  flank  thin ;  hips 
arching,  long  from  rump  to  hip-bone ;  thighs  lean 
and  incurving  at  rear  line;  loose,  soft,  and  yield- 
ing, but  firm ;  body  well  rounded  and  strong. 


CHAPTER  VIII 


DAIRY  STANDARD 

IN  building  up  a  herd  a  fixed  standard  should  be 
applied  to  cows  five  years  of  age  and  over.  In  a 
butter-producing  dairy  that  standard  should  not  be 
less  than  250  pounds,  and  in  the  milk-producing  herd 
not  less  than  5,000  pounds  annually.  This,  of  course, 
means  under  favorable  conditions.  The  cow  should 
not  be  charged  with  the  result  of  neglect  on  the  part 
of  her  owner.  If  a  heifer  comes  from  good  produ- 
cing ancestry  and  is  of  good  dairy  form,  she  should 
not  be  discarded  after  the  first,  second,  or  even  third, 
calf.  One  of  the  worst  mistakes  ever  made  by  the 
writer  was  selling  a  fine,  well-pedigreed  cow  at  four 
years  old  because  she  did  not  come  up  to  his  ex- 
pectations. The  following  year  she  became  a  cow 
producing  between  fifty  and  sixty  pounds  of  milk 
daily  on  average  pasture  feed  with  a  little  grain. 
Among  well-pedigreed,  high-producing  cows,  ill  or 
unkind  treatment  will  make  a  greater  reduction  at 
the  pail  than  with  the  scrub. 

REARING  THE   CALF 

The  calf  should  be  removed  from  the  mother  be^ 
fore  it  is  a  day  old.  If  it  is  not  well  developed,  with 
good  teeth ;  if  it  is  dainty  and  not  inclined  to  drink, 
has  a  poor  appetite  and  is  generally  offish,  it  will  not 
be  worth  the  raising.  Feed  three  times  a  day  with 
new  milk,  to  which  add  a  little  hot  water,  for  the 
first  week  or  more,  and  give  not  much  over  a  quart 

69 


70  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

at  a  time.  More  calves  are  spoiled  by  overfeeding 
than  by  underfeeding.  After  the  first  week  gradually 
substitute  warm  sweet  skimmed  milk  for  the  full  milk 
and  add  a  little  flaxseed  or  oil-cake  meal.  Prepare 
this  daily  by  soaking  five  or  six  times  the  bulk  of  the 
meal  in  warm  water  until  it  becomes  a  jelly.  Start 
with  a  tablespoonful  of  this,  well  stirred  into  the  feed, 
slowly  increasing  the  amount.  Loosening  of  bowels 
or  other  indication  of  indigestion  is  proof  that  too 
much  is  being  fed. 

At  the  third  week  begin  to  add  a  little  wheat  mid- 
dlings. At  that  time  the  feed  may  consist  of  warmed 
skimmed  milk,  oil-cake  meal,  and  wheat  middlings, 
with  a  little  fine  ground  corn-meal  added  in  winter. 
After  the  second  week  two  feeds  a  day  will  do.  Six 
quarts  of  milk  a  day  with  oil-cake  meal  and  wheat 
middlings  is  abundant.  A  quart  of  hot  water  may 
be  added  to  each  feed  to  warm  the  milk.  It  is  an 
easy  way  to  warm  the  milk,  and  will  be  attended  with 
good  results. 

As  soon  as  the  calf  begins  to  eat  hay,  feed  clover 
cut  when  it  begins  to  blossom,  and  placed  where 
available.  Corn-meal  should  be  sparingly  fed  in 
winter,  but  not  at  all  in  summer.  In  winter  it  should 
not  form  over  one-third  of  the  grain  feed  at  any 
time.  Corn-meal  keeps  the  animal  warm,  and  tends 
to  fatten  it.  Milk,  oil-cake  or  linseed-meal,  and  wheat 
middlings  form  blood,  muscle,  nerve,  bone,  hair,  etc., 
and  tend  to  develop  milk  qualities.  All  changes  in 
feed  for  calves  should  be  slow  and  gradual.  Sudden 
changes  in  feed  are  likely  to  result  unfavorably.  In 
feeding  grain,  put  the  grain  feed  into  the  milk.  Do 
not  pour  the  milk  on  the  feed. 


DAIRY     STANDARD  Jl 

The  quarters  must  be  kept  warm,  and  well  supplied 
with  dry,  clean  bedding.  They  must  be  comfortable 
if  the  calf  is  to  do  well.  Never  try  to  fatten;  simply 
keep  the  animal  growing  nicely.  The  fat  in  milk  has 
less  feeding  value  than  is  generally  supposed.  Nearly 
all  the  protein,  that  substance  which  forms  blood, 
nerve,  and  muscle,  is  in  the  skimmed  milk.  Feed  reg- 
ularly and  by  measure.  Pet  the  calves.  Keep  them 
in  separate  pens  while  in  a  shed  or  barn  in  winter  and 
spring.  Calves  do  better  in  the  barn  than  in  the 
pasture. 

THE   HEIFER 

Keep  the  heifer  growing  and  in  good  condition. 
Clover,  or  mixed  clover  and  timothy  hay,  ground  peas 
and  oats,  and  other  nitrogenous  food  should  consti- 
tute the  winter  ration.  One-fourth  to  one-third  corn- 
meal  may  be  added,  especially  if  the  quarters  are  cool. 
Upon  good  management  at  this  time  depends  the 
future  cow.  Her  care  and  development  up  to  the 
time  of  her  first  calf  will  go  far  to  fix  her  capacity 
as  a  producer.  Treat  her  kindly  and  keep  her  in  con- 
fidence. Never  speak  to  or  treat  her  roughly,  nor 
allow  the  hired  man  to  do  so. 

When  she  comes  in,  milk  her  clean  and  pamper 
her  appetite,  so  as  to  keep  up  the  flow  of  milk  until 
near  second  calving.  If  allowed  to  dry  off  early  she 
will  be  hard  to  cure  of  it  afterward.  Four  to  six 
weeks  is  plenty  long  enough  for  a  heifer  to  go  dry. 
Accustom  her  to  handling  before  she  comes  fresh 
the  first  time.  Give  the  calves  and  heifers  warm, 
comfortable  quarters  and  comfortable,  dry  bedding  at 
all  times.  » 


72  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

Each  generation  of  cows  should  be  better  than  the 
preceding  one.  If  this  is  not  so  it  is  the  fault  of  the 
man.  Lou  Dillon  did  not  trot  a  mile  in  1 158^4 
purely  by  inherited  powers.  None  of  her  ancestors 
ever  showed  their  capacity  to  equal  her  performance. 
Inherited  powers  are  conceded  to  exercise  a  powerful 
effect;  but  increased  power,  developed  by  environ- 
ment and  training,  must  be  added  to  make  the  two- 
minute  horse  possible.  The  same  is  true  of  the  heifer 
being  reared.  The  raiser  has  as  much  to  do  with 
developing  her  into  a  profitable  machine  as  the  man 
who  bred  her;  as  much  as  her  father  and  mother. 

The  properly  reared  heifer  resulting  from  the  cross 
of  the  Ayrshire  father  upon  the  Jersey  mother  can  be 
depended  upon  at  four  years  to  produce  300  or  more 
pounds  of  butter  and  5,000  pounds  of  milk. 


CHAPTER  IX 


FEED  OF  THE  DAIRY  COW 

THE  properly  bred  and  reared  dairy  cow  cannot 
help  but  produce  milk  and  butter  if  her  owner  does 
his  part.  She  cannot,  however,  "make  bricks  without 
straw/'  In  a  series  of  tests  conducted  by  the  differ- 
ent experiment  stations  in  the  United  States  as  to 
feed  for  cows,  it  was  ascertained  that  the  nearer  cer- 
tain proportions  in  food  elements  were  reached  the 
more  satisfactory  were  the  results  in  economical  pro- 
duction of  milk  and  butter  fat.  Those  elements  are 
protein  (which  forms  bone,  nerve,  muscle,  and  tissue) 
and  carbohydrates  (which  produce  fat  and  heat). 
These,  with  moisture  extracted,  form  what  was 
known  as  dry  matter.  More  will  be  said  of  this  here- 
after. The  proper  proportion  was  found  to  be  twenty- 
five  pounds  dry  matter,  of  which  2.25  pounds  were 
protein  and  16  pounds  carbohydrates  daily.  While 
there  is  a  difference  in  the  amount  needed  for  indi- 
vidual cows,  proportioned  to  their  production  and 
size,  the  ration  of  these  elements  should  be  preserved, 
For  example :  If  the  cow  were  fed  twenty  pounds  of 
carbohydrates,  or  heat  food,  and  only  one  and  one- 
half  pounds  of  protein,  she  fell  off  in  production,  and 
there  was  a  waste  and  consequent  loss  in  carbo- 
hydrates. The  same  follows  in  any  other  disturbing 
of  the  ratio  or  balancing  of  food.  The  food  pre- 
pared in  this  way  has  been  known  as  a  balanced 
ration. 

73 


74  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

Other  elements  enter  into  the  feeding  problems,  so 
that  a  mere  balanced  ration  is  not  the  only  thing  tc 
be  considered.  Cottonseed-meal,  a  highly  nitrogen- 
ous food,  has  a  tendency  to  create  feverish  conditions 
and  is  irritating  in  its  nature.  Oil-cake  meal,  another 
nitrogenous  food,  has  exactly  the  opposite  tendency, 
It  follows  that  where  the  balance  in  ration  is  made  up 
of  either  of  these  feeds  the  result  may  not  be  satis- 
factory. The  effect  upon  the  system  must  be  consid- 
ered. Wheat  bran  and  middlings  are  bulky.  Buck- 
wheat middlings  are  heavy  and  a  concentrated  food. 
Mixing  these  feeds  produces  a  much  better  effect 
than  when  either  is  fed  separately.  Oil-cake  meal 
and  cottonseed-meal  may  be  mixed  with  the  same 
result. 

The  feeding  problem  must  be  carefully  studied  by 
the  man  who  would  feed  successfully.  No  single 
food  or  ration  can  be  adopted  with  profitable  results. 
Clover  hay  and  alfala  come  the  nearest  to  a  perfect 
ration  of  any  single  food.  No  chemist  can  tell  the 
kinds  of  food  to  use  or  the  proportions  necessary  to 
produce  milk  or  butter.  The  cow  is  her  own  chemist, 
and  it  was  only  through  her  aid  that  the  balanced 
ration  was  determined.  Her  tastes,  her  appetite  must 
be  taken  into  consideration  in  determining  what  she 
shall  eat,  and  the  quantity  should  be  increased  or 
diminished  as  she  makes  corresponding  returns. 
Compounding  rations  will  be  treated  under  a  separate 
head. 

WATER    AND    SALT 

When  practicable  it  is  well  to  have  fresh  water 
constantly  within  reach  of  the  cow.  Devices  for  this 
purpose  in  considerable  variety  are  on  the  market. 


FEED    OF    THE    DAIRY     COW  75 

Salt  should  always  be  within  reach  also.  Where 
cows  are  confined  in  stanchions  there  should  be  a 
partition  in  the  feed-manger  to  every  second  cow. 
On  this  should  be  fastened  a  cast  iron  or  other  box ; 
inside  dimensions,  about  eight  inches  long,  four  wide, 
and  two  deep.  Over  the  top  at  the  end  farthest  from 
the  cow  should  be  fastened  a  strip  of  zinc  or  iron 
about  an  inch  in  width  to  prevent  the  cow  throwing 
the  salt  out  with  her  tongue.  Salt  should  be  kept 
in  this  box  at  all  times.  Now  and  then  a  cow  will 
be  found  that  will  eat  too  much  for  her  good.  It 
may  be  necessary  to  stint  her  to  three  or  four  feeds 
a  week. 

SILAGE 

Among  the  cheap  modern  feeds  that  go  to  make  up 
a  ration  none,  when  properly  fed,  surpasses  silage. 
It  is  a  succulent  food  that  aids  in  the  digestion  of 
other  foods,  materially  increasing  their  value  for  the 
production  of  milk,  butter,  and  beef.  The  partial  fer- 
mentation which  takes  place  in  silage,  after  it  is  cut 
and  stored,  starts  the  process  of  digestion  and  renders 
it  the  most  valuable  of  succulent  foods.  Many  feeders 
depend  too  much  upon  silage  as  a  balanced  food,  and 
feed  from  forty  to  fifty  pounds  daily ;  an  ample  ration 
is  thirty  to  thirty-five  pounds  daily  for  the  milk-  pro- 
ducing cow.  If  eight  to  twelve  pounds  of  hay  and 
what  oat  or  buckwheat  straw  she  will  eat  clean  be 
added  to  the  grain  food,  a  complete  ration  will  be 
formed.  No  greater  mistake  can  be  made  than  to 
keep  the  manger  filled  with  hay  or  straw.  Give  the 
cow  only  what  she  will  eat;  when  she  stops,  clean 
the  manger,  and  leave  it  so  until  next  feeding  time. 


76     .  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

Most  skilled  feeders  agree  that  two  feeds  a  day  are 
better  than  feeding  oftener.  Some  favor  a  light  feed 
of  hay  or  straw  at  noon,  but  the  majority  favor  the 
two  daily  feeds.  Buckwheat  straw  properly  cured 
contains  more  food  value  than  good  oat  straw.  It 
has  about  25  per  cent,  more  protein  than  oat  straw. 

BALANCING    A    RATION 

The  table  below  shows  the  constituents  of  some  of 
the  feeds  used  in  forming  a  balanced  ration.  A  full 
list  is  at  the  end  of  the  book.  Wheat  bran,  wheat 
middlings,  corn-meal,  gluten  feed,  oats,  pea-meal, 
cotton-seed  meal,  oil-cake  are  among  the  most  avail- 
able foods  for  this  purpose.  Nearly  all,  except  corn- 
meal,  are  highly  nitrogenous,  hence  must  be  balanced 
with  corn-meal,  which  is  low  in  protein  and  high  in 
carbohydrates.  The  word  "  protein/'  "  nitrogenous," 
and  "albuminoid "  all  refer  to  the  same  elements 
which  are  commonly  called  "protein." 

PROTEIN 

This  is  the  constituent  food  used  to  build  up  and 
keep  in  repair  the  working  tissues  of  the  body.  In 
other  words,  it  supplies  the  material  for  the  growth 
of  tissue.  This  includes  blood,  bone,  flesh,  and  hair. 
Protein  also  forms  a  large  part  of  the  solids  in  milk. 
It  is  indispensable  for  all  these  purposes;  no  sub- 
stance can  take  its  place.  If,  however,  more  is  fed 
than  is  needed  for  these  various  purposes,  the  excess 
is  consumed  like  carbohydrates. 


FEED    OF    THE    DAIRY     COW  77 

FAT  AND  CARBOHYDRATES 

These  are  so  similar  in  their  uses  that  in  modern 
feeding  tables  they  are  classed  together.  They  serve 
three  purposes.  First,  they  are  consumed  in  the 
body  to  furnish  animal  heat.  Second,  their  con- 
sumption furnishes  motive  force,  energy,  as  coal 
burned  under  the  locomotive  boiler  furnishes  power. 
Third,  the  excess  not  consumed  for  the  other  pur- 
poses is  deposited  as  fat  in  the  body.  An  animal 
may  be  fed  with  an  oversupply  of  carbohydrates  in 
the  shape  of  corn,  and  an  undersupply  of  protein, 
and  while  laying  on  fat  actually  starve  for  want  of 
material  to  make  blood,  nerve,  and  muscle.  An  in- 
stance which  came  under  the  writer's  observation 
illustrates  this.  A  farmer,  having  nothing  for  his 
team  to  do  during  the  winter,  kept  them  in  the  barn, 
feeding  them  on  a  poor  quality  of  timothy  hay,  some 
oat  straw,  and  a  liberal  supply  of  corn-meal.  In 
early  spring  they  appeared  to  be  in  fine  condition, 
but  when  he  hitched  them  up  they  soon  became  ex- 
hausted, and  he  was  unable  to  get  one  of  them 
home.  In  calling  a  veterinarian  it  was  discovered 
that  the  muscle,  flesh,  and  blood  of  the  horses  had 
been  so  impoverished  as  to  produce  the  same  re- 
sult as  actual  starvation.  On  a  balanced  ration  they 
soon  recovered. 

The  feed  value  of  fat  is  two  and  a  half  times 
that  of  carbohydrates.  Skim-milk  can  be  fed  to  milk 
cows  to  advantage.  The  place  of  twenty  pounds 
of  average  mixed  ground  feeds  can  be  taken  by  one 
hundred  pounds  of  milk.  It  is  worth  twenty  cents 
a  hundredweight.  The  following  table  may  be 
found  of  assistance  in  producing  a  balanced  ration; 


78  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

Protein       Carbohydrates 

Per  cent.  Per  cent. 

Corn   silage i.i  18.2 

Alfalfa    hay      10.4  43.0 

Clover 6.4  38.5 

Oat   straw      1.4  45.0 

Timothy   hay 2.9  46.9 

Corn-meal      5.5  71.1 

Buckwheat   middlings 23.7  50.5 

Pea-meal 16.8  53.1 

Wheat    bran 1.28  45.4 

Oats 9-2  53-2 

Suppose  a  ration  is  being  fed  from  the  above  prod- 
ucts as  follows:  Silage,  30  pounds;  clover  hay,  12 
pounds ;  oat  straw,  6  pounds ;  buckwheat  middlings,  4 
pounds;  wheat  bran,  4  pounds.  The  value  of  this 
ration  may  be  calculated  by  removing  the  decimal 
point  in  the  above  table  two  places  to  the  left.  This 
will  give  the  value  of  one  pound.  Multiply  this  num- 
ber by  the  number  of  pounds  being  fed  of  each  kind, 
and  add  the  results  to  give  the  total  value  of  the 
ration.  Thus : 

Protein.  Pounds. 

Silage       30  pounds  X  -Oil  =        .33 

Clover      12  pounds  X  .064  =        .768 

Oat  straw 6  pounds  X  -014  =        .084 

Buckwheat      ....  4  pounds  X  -237  =        -94$ 

Wheat  bran    ....  4  pounds  X  .120  =        .48 

Total    protein 2.59 


Carbohydrates.  Pounds 

Silage 30  pounds  X  .182  =  546 

Clover      12  pounds  X  .385  =  4-62 

Oat  straw 6  pounds  X  -45O  =  2.70 

Buckw't     middlings.     4  pounds  X  -505  =  2.02 

Wheat  bran    ....     4  pounds  X  454  =  *•& 

Total   carbohydrates ...  16.61 


FEED    OF    THE    DAIRY     COW  79 

Following  the  above  method,  it  is  easy  to  ascertain 
the  value  of  any  ration  being  fed  and  how  to  correct 
it.  This  knowledge  is  indispensable  in  conducting  a 
profitable  dairy.  Whatever  the  food,  if  the  ratio  of 
protein  and  carbohydrates  differs  materially  from  the 
formula  of  one  to  seven,  one  or  the  other  is  being 
wasted.  This  is  only  the  ratio;  the  quantity  and 
character  must  be  governed  by  the  demands,  taste, 
and  appetite  of  the  cow.  What  each  cow  will  con- 
sume at  a  profit  can  be  ascertained  only  by  actual 
experiment.  Increase  the  grain  feed  as  long  as  there 
is  a  corresponding  increase  in  the  flow  of  milk.  Pro- 
duction of  milk  is  a  natural  function.  The  cow's 
health  will  not  be  impaired  by  giving  her  all  she  will 
profitably  eat  and  make  into  milk  and  butter  fat. 
Under  the  above  conditions  the  cow's  period  of 
profitable  production  will  be  greater  than  that  of  the 
neglected,  half-starved,  and  half-frozen  cow  too 
often  seen. 

The  ground  feed  should  be  scattered  on  the  silage, 
so  that  both  will  be  eaten  together.  By  so  doing  the 
value  of  the  ground  feed  will  be  considerably  in- 
creased. Where  cows  are  watered  outside  of  the 
stable  it  is  better  to  water  them  after  eating. 


CHAPTER  X 


CARE    OF    THE    COW 

THE  profitable  work  of  the  dairyman  is  in  the  care 
of  the  dairy  cow.  To  do  good  work  the  surround- 
ings must  be  to  the  cow's  liking.  She  must  have  a 
warm,  well-lighted,  and  properly  ventilated  stable. 
There  should  be  a  good-sized  window  every  ten  or 
twelve  feet  all  the  way  around  the  stable.  This 
should  be  as  well  lighted  as  the  kitchen  or  sitting- 
room.  There  should  be  at  least  800  cubic  feet  of 
stable  space  for  each  cow. 

LIGHT  AND  VENTILATION 

If  a  new  barn  is  being  built  special  attention  in 
its  construction  should  be  given  to  ventilation,  which 
must  be  under  control,  so  as  to  avoid  drafts  all  the 
year  round.  The  following  hints  will  be  found  use- 
ful in  repairing  an  old  stable,  which  may  serve  until 
a  new  one  can  be  built. 

Put  in  a  goodly  number  of  double-sash  windows, 
made  so  that  the  lower  sash  will  raise.  On  the  in- 
side of  the  window,  dropping  down  tight  on  the 
casing  and  about  four  inches  away  from  the  window, 
nail  a  board  about  ten  or  twelve  inches  in  width. 
When  the  window  is  raised  to  admit  air,  it  strikes 
against  this  board,  takes  an  upward  draft,  and  grad- 
ually mingles  with  the  air  of  the  stable.  On  the  lee- 
ward side  of  the  barn  open  the  windows  in  the  same 

80 


CARE    OF    THE    COW  8 1 

way,  so  that  the  foul  air  will  pass  out.  A  pure  at- 
mosphere can  be  kept  in  the  stable  in  this  manner 
without  draft.  Warmth  can  be  obtained  by  lining  the 
building  throughout  with  heavy  building  paper,  again 
lining  that  with  old  lumber  from  some  torn  down 
building.  Stables  should  be  thoroughly  whitewashed 
at  least  once  a  year. 

CARDING    AND    BRUSHING 

Given  a  well-bred  herd,  a  stable  well  lighted  and 
ventilated,  swing  stanchions  or  other  comfortable 
fastenings,  a  well-balanced  ration,  the  intimate  rela- 
tion between  the  'cow  and  her  attendant  begins.  The 
cow  has  no  means  of  retaliation  for  neglect  or  ill- 
treatment,  except  to  kick  and  to  stop  her  flow  of 
milk.  These  she  is  likely  to  use  effectively.  Kind 
treatment  is  always  in  order;  regular  feeding  and 
milking  times  are  among  the  first  requirements. 
After  these  the  most  profitable  operations  in  the  barn 
and  stable  are  carding  and  brushing.  Repeated  ex- 
periments have  demonstrated  that  these  practices, 
while  the  cows  are  in  the  stable,  will  increase  the 
flow  of  milk  sufficiently  to  pay  the  wages  of  the 
attendant.  Three  minutes  to  the  cow  will  do  the 
work  well.  For  a  herd  of  twenty-five  cows  the 
seventy-five  minutes  devoted  to  this  work  will  result 
in  more  profit  than  an  equal  amount  of  time  ex- 
pended in  any  other  way.  An  average  difference  of 
from  two  to  four  quarts  per  cow  a  day  will  result. 
One  who  has  not  tried  this  should  divide  his  herd  in 
halves,  card  and  brush  one-half  daily,  and  let  the  other 
half  go  without  for  one  month  and  note  the  result. 


82  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

TEMPERATURE   OF  STABLE 

In  winter  the  stable  should  be  kept  between  40° 
and  50°  Fahrenheit.  The  latter  is  not  too  warm. 
This  should  not  be  trusted  to  the  guess  of  the  at- 
tendant. A  thermometer  should  always  be  kept 
hanging  in  the  barn  at  such  a  point  as  to  give  aver- 
age temperature.  Temperature  and  ventilation  go 
together  and  should  be  carefully  watched.  The 
colder  the  weather  the  more  rapid  will  be  the  circu- 
lation of  air.  The  windows  should  be  raised  and 
lowered  accordingly.  Heat  from  the  cows  will  keep 
the  temperature  all  right  when  ventilation  is  well 
under  proper  control. 


CHAPTER  XI 


MILKING 

So  far  as  possible,  the  same  person  should  milk  the 
same  lot  of  cows.  No  greater  nonsense  was  ever 
promulgated  than  that  all  talking  and  whistling 
should  be  prohibited  in  the  stable.  The  cow  should 
be  familiar  with  the  voice  of  her  attendant,  and  she 
should  never  hear  it  in  other  than  kindly  tones.  She 
should  be  called  by  name,  and  talked  to  individually 
when  he  has  occasion  to  speak  to  her.  Whistling  and 
singing  to  a  moderate  degree  are  not  objectionable  in 
the  stable. 

Mr.  H.  B.  Curler  says  that  the  cows  invariably  fell 
off  in  their  yield  under  the  care  of  a  certain  attend- 
ant. The  man  was  kind,  milked  his  cows  quickly  and 
clean,  and  seemed  to  give  the  same  care  as  others. 
Still  he  could  not  keep  up  the  flow  of  cows  under 
his  charge.  It  was  noticed  that  he  rarely  spoke  in 
the  stable,  and  still  more  rarely  to  the  cows  he  milked. 
His  attention  was  called  to  the  fact,  and  he  was 
asked  to  change  his  methods  and  familiarize  the 
cows  with  the  tones  of  his  voice.  He  did  so,  and  the 
problem  was  solved.  The  cows  had  never  become 
acquainted  with  him.  Cows  like  to  hear  the  voice 
of  the  attendant,  especially  when  in  a  kindly  manner 
he  speaks  their  names. 

Milking  should  be  done  quickly,  kindly,  and  clean- 
ly. If  a  part  of  the  flow  is  left  in  the  udder,  each 
time,  the  cow  soon  learns  to  secrete  just  that  amount 

83 


84  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

less,  and  there  will  be  a  corresponding  falling  off  in 
the  flow.  The  same  sequence  of  milking  should  be 
followed  each  day,  so  that  each  cow  will  know  when 
her  turn  comes.  Attendants  have  probably  noticed 
that  when  they  sit  down  to  milk  one  cow  the  udder 
of  the  next  one  will  begin  to  fill,  and  milk  will  often 
begin  to  flow  from  her  teats  before  they  get  to  her. 
If  she  is  not  milked  in  her  order  she  will  manifest 
her  displeasure  by  her  nervous  actions,  indicating 
disappointment.  The  first  few  streams  of  milk  from 
each  teat  should  not  be  put  in  the  pail.  Bacteria 
gather  in  the  end  of  the  teats  between  milkings. 
These  in  the  milk  will  increase  with  great  rapidity, 
often  seriously  injuring  its  quality  for  butter  and 
cheese.  As  soon  as  drawn  the  milk  should  be  re- 
moved from  the  odors  of  the  stable.  There  is  noth- 
ing that  will  more  readily  absorb  noxious  odors  than 
cooling  milk. 

The  cow  is  a  creature  of  habit.  If  regularly  fed 
before  milking  she  will,  when  this  order  is  changed, 
be  restless  and  often  refuse  to  give  down  her  milk. 
It  is  better  to  feed  after  milking.  If  silage,  at  all 
defective,  be  fed  before  milking  the  odor  is  likely  to 
appear  in  the  milk.  Odors  from  food  reach  the 
milk  in  an  incredibly  short  space  of  time.  Two  min- 
utes will  serve  to  take  the  odors  of  food  to  the  udder 
and  milk-pail.  If  fed  after  milking,  silage  will  not, 
unless  very  bad,  taint  the  milk.  Milking  should  be 
done  at  periods  as  near  twelve  hours  apart  as  prac- 
ticable, and  at  the  same  hours  each  day. 

After  the  cow  has  fed  and  lain  down  she  should 
not  be  disturbed  more  than  can  be  helped.  Good, 
comfortable  bedding,  such  as  barn-floor  litter,  chaff, 


MILKING  85 

and  buckwheat  straw,  should  be  kept  under  her. 
Oat  straw  is  good,  but  does  not  keep  its  place  as  well 
as  the  articles  mentioned.  There  is  no  economy  in 
stinting  the  cow  in  the  matter  of  bedding,  as  no  more 
is  wasted  when  liberal  bedding  is  used  than  when  it 
is  stinted.  No  dog  should  be  allowed  in  the  barn 
or  about  the  cows,  and  the  animals  should  never  be 
chased  or  hurried.  Ill  treatment  of  this  kind  will  be 
evident  in  the  production.  In  winter  turn  the  cattle 
out  not  more  than  an  hour  a  day  in  mild  weather; 
less  time  when  colder,  and  in  stormy  weather  not  at 
all. 

BAD   HABITS   TO   AVOID 

Jerking  downward  with  the  hand  when  milking  is 
a  bad  practice.  It  is  not  uncommon  to  see  a  milker 
jerk  a  teat  as  if  he  were  trying  to  separate  it  from 
the  udder.  Many  a  fine  cow  has  been  ruined  in  this 
way.  After  the  attendant  has  carefully  wiped  off 
the  udder  with  a  piece  of  dry  burlap  or  other  suit- 
able material,  he  should  grasp  the  teat,  milk  slowly 
for  the  first  few  moments,  then  with  a  slight  down- 
ward pressure  force  the  milk  from  th^  teat.  He  will 
find  that  it  requires  less  exertion  to  milk  in  the  proper 
manner  than  in  the  old  way.  An  attendant  who  will 
not  reform  should  be  promptly  discharged  or  dis- 
missed from  the  barn.  Garget,  injured  quarters, 
lumps  in  teats  and  udder,  deformed  udders  are  com- 
mon results  of  this  violent  jerking  down  when  milk- 
ing. Wetting  the  hand  or  teat  is  another  bad  practice. 
It  is  filthy  as  well  as  injurious.  If  the  teat  be  fever- 
ish, sore,  or  cracked,  a  little  vaseline  will  soften  it. 


86  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

This  is  an  article  that  should  always  be  on  hand  in 
the  cow  stable. 

Cleanliness  should  be  a  standard  requisite  in  the 
dairy.  Cows  well  bedded  and  daily  carded  and 
brushed  will  be  in  condition  to  produce  pure  milk. 
The  udder  should  be  wiped  with  a  coarse,  rough 
cloth.  This  cloth  should  not  be  allowed  to  become 
filthy.  If  necessary  to  bathe  the  udder  it  should  be 
wiped  dry  before  milking. 


CHAPTER  XI 


WHEN  TO  HAVE  COWS  COME  FRESH 

Cows  coming  fresh  in  October,  November,  and  De- 
cember will,  if  properly  fed  and  cared  for,  produce 
25  per  cent,  more  milk  in  the  year  than  they  would 
on  the  same  care  and  feed  coming  fresh  in  March, 
April,  and  May.  There  is  but  slight  difference  in  the 
cost  of  feed.  The  reason  is  this:  a  cow  naturally 
begins  to  fall  off  in  flow  when  from  six  to  seven 
months  in  lactation.  A  cow  coming  in  in  fall  or 
early  winter  reaches  this  condition  when  pasture  is 
fresh  and  feed  good.  This  counteracts  the  natural 
tendency,  and  through  June  and  July  she  will  hold 
her  own  with  the  cow  fresh  in  the  spring.  The  fall 
fresh  cow  is  ready  to  begin  to  dry  off  as  she  reaches 
the  dry  weather,  short  pasture,  and  flies  of  August 
and  September.  The  cow  fresh  in  the  spring  reaches 
this  period  at  the  same  time  that  nature  tends  to 
diminish  the  flow.  This  tendency  is  aggravated  by 
the  surroundings.  It  is  difficult  if  not  impossible  to 
keep  up  her  flow.  The  flow  of  milk,  materially  di- 
minished for  three  or  four  weeks,  cannot  be  fully 
restored  until  she  is  again  fresh. 

Silage  and  soiling  crops,  such  as  peas  and  oats, 
alfalfa,  millet,  hay,  etc.,  are  of  great  assistance,  but 
they  cannot  entirely  counteract  the  effect  of  heat, 
short  pasture,  and  flies.  The  male  should  be  kept 
from  the  cows  except  when  turned  with  them  daily 
in  the  winter  to  secure  cows  fresh  in  the  fall  and 

87 


88  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

winter.  About  December  loth  is  a  good  time  to 
begin  to  allow  the  bull  with  the  cows.  Nine  months 
and  ten  days  is  the  average  period  of  gestation.  This 
brings  the  first  cows  in  near  the  ist  of  October.  At 
that  time  most  of  the  flies  have  disappeared,  and  fall 
feed  is  plentiful.  The  fall  fresh  cow  not  only  pro- 
duces about  one-quarter  more  than  the  one  fresh  in 
the  spring,  but  she  produces  a  large  portion  of  it  at 
a  time  of  the  year  when  it  is  worth  25  to  50  per  cent, 
more  than  it  is  in  late  spring  and  summer.  This  is 
especially  true  in  localities  where  milk  is  produced 
for  condensing  purposes. 

Where  the  location  will  permit  of  dairying  all  the 
year  round  to  supply  local  butter  trade,  winter,  or 
year  round  dairying,  is  most  profitable.  Customers 
are  always  willing  to  pay  a  few  cents  more  a  pound 
where  the  quality  is  prime  and  the  supply  can  be 
depended  upon.  In  order  to  hold  trade  of  this  kind 
it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  the  supply  be  regular 
throughout  the  year.  When  once  a  customer  has 
acquired  a  taste  for  a  certain  make  of  butter  he  will 
soon  prefer  it  to  any  other,  provided  it  is  of  uniform 
quality  and  flavor.  Three  grades  of  salting  will  suit 
the  different  tastes,  salt,  medium,  and  quite  fresh — 
one  and  one-half  ounces,  one  ounce,  and  one-half  or 
three-fourths  ounce  to  the  pound.  In  some  instances 
the  location  is  such  that  cheese-making  is  the  only 
available  market  for  milk.  In  such  case,  from  March 
ist  to  May  I5th  is  of  necessity  the  season  for 
freshening. 

Farmers  often  say :  "  My  barns  are  cold  and 
unfit  for  winter  dairying/'  In  such  case  dairying  is 
not  profitable  at  all,  and  the  sooner  it  is  abandoned 


WHEN  TO  HAVE  COWS  COME  FRESH  89 

the  better.  They  are  feeding  their  cows  for  sum- 
mer work.  A  cow  that  is  not  well  wintered  will  not 
do  justice  to  herself  or  her  owner  even  in  the  sum- 
mer. January  feed  and  care  has  much  to  do  with 
July  butter.  It  is  well  not  to  have  heifers  come 
fresh  before  twenty-four  months  old,  but  as  soon 
after  that,  if  they  be  of  average  health  and  growth, 
as  possible.  Close  observation  for  twenty  years  has 
satisfied  me  that  the  heifer  coming  fresh  at  two 
years  is  likely  to  make  a  better  cow  than  the  one 
remaining  dry  until  three  years  old.  Milk  produc- 
tion by  a  heifer  still  growing  tends  to  develop  milk- 
producing  qualities.  During  every  moment  of  her 
growth  she  is  fixing  her  future  capacity  as  a  milk 
and  butter  producer.  If  her  energy  be  directed  only 
toward  the  growth  of  tissue  and  fat  she  will  not  be 
as  good  a  cow  as  if  this  had  not  occurred.  The 
heifer  must  have  care  and  be  kept  growing.  The  best 
cows  I  have  ever  developed  were  those  that  came 
fresh  for  the  first  time  between  twenty-two  and 
twenty-eight  months  of  age. 


CHAPTER  XIII 


FEEDS  AND  THEIR  VALUES 

CLOVER   AND   ALFALFA 

IN  regions  where  alfalfa  can  be  grown  it  is  one 
of  the  most  economical  of  dairy  foods.  It  is  high- 
ly nitrogenous,  being  worth  75  per  cent,  as  much, 
ton  per  ton,  as  wheat  bran.  Its  yield  is  three  to  five, 
and  sometimes  as  high  as  six,  tons  to  the  acre.  Its 
growth  is  controlled  by  local  conditions,  and  it  is 
worth  while  for  each  farmer  to  learn  whether  his 
conditions  are  adapted  for  it.  (The  reader  is  re- 
ferred to  F.  D.  Coburn's  book  on  Alfala  for  full  in- 
formation.) 

In  colder  localities,  where  alfalfa  will  not  grow, 
clover  may  be  considered  the  most  valuable  crop.  It 
derives  nitrogen,  the  most  valuable  of  fertilizers,  from 
the  air,  and  furnishes  its  own  fertility  of  nitrogen  as 
well  as  leaving  large  quantities  in  the  soil  for  future 
crops.  A  ton  of  clover  has  nearly  twice  the  food 
value  for  milk  production  that  a  ton  of  timothy  hay 
has.  The  dairyman  who  can  sell  his  timothy  hay  and 
buy  clover  at  the  same  price,  to  take  its  place,  is 
making  money.  As  a  rule,  timothy  hay  sells  for 
quite  an  advance  over  clover,  so  that  two  tons  of 
timothy  will  buy  nearly  three  tons  of  clover.  In  the 
exchange  the  farmer  is  nearly  doubling  his  money  for 
the  trouble  and  labor  of  so  doing. 
90 


FEEDS  AND  THEIR  VALUES  QI 

OATS   AND   PEAS 

Among  the  farm  crops  adapted  to  dairying  there 
are  few  more  profitable  than  oats  and  peas  combined. 
The  peas  should,  on  most  ground,  be  put  in  by  plow, 
disk-harrow,  or  seeder,  at  least  four  inches  deep, 
and  should  precede  the  putting  in  of  the  oats  by 
about  a  week.  There  should  be  about  one  and  one- 
half  bushels  of  peas  and  two  bushels  of  oats  per  acre. 
They  make  an  excellent  forage  crop  when  needed 
in  July  and  August.  Crops  can  be  put  in  a  week 
apart  for  succession  forage  supply.  When  not 
needed  for  supplemental  food  in  a  dry  time  they 
may  be  cut  to  hay,  just  as  oat  straw  starts  to  turn 
color;  or  they  can  be  allowed  to  ripen  and  can  be 
threshed  and  ground  as  a  grain  food.  The  peas 
contain  nearly  19  per  cent,  of  protein  and  53  per 
cent,  of  carbohydrates.  The  straw  is  good  as  a 
roughage  for  cattle  eating  silage. 

MANURIAL    VALUE    OF    FEED    STUFFS 

This  division  of  feed  values  as  it  relates  to  eco- 
nomical feeding  has  not  heretofore  been  considered. 
If  the  herd  is  to  be  charged  with  the  value  of  the 
feeds,  it  must  also  be  credited  with  what  it  returns 
to  the  soil  in  fertilizing  values.  As  a  rule,  the  cow 
uses  up  in  the  process  of  producing  milk,  butter,  and 
beef,  and  in  keeping  up  her  animal  heat,  about  20 
per  cent,  of  the  potash,  phosphoric  acid,  and  nitro- 
gen contained  in  her  food.  The  remainder  is  manure. 

A  large  amount  in  value  of  this  product  is  con- 
tained in  the  liquid  excretion.  This  is  the  most 
readily  available  for  plant  growth.  On  many  farms 
all,  or  a  great  part,  of  this  is  wasted.  The  total 


92  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

value  of  the  excretion  from  a  well-fed  animal,  based 
on  the  current  prices  for  manurial  elements,  to  wit, 
potash  at  $4  per  hundredweight,  phosphoric  acid  at 
$4,  and  nitrogen  at  $15 — amounts  to  $25  annually  to 
each  one  thousand  pounds  of  stock.  These  values  are 
taken  from  the  analyses  furnished  by  the  Penn- 
sylvania Experiment  Station.  (See  computation  of 
rations  for  farm  animals,  page  78.) 

As  the  cow  consumes  one-fifth  of  the  potash, 
nitrogen,  and  phosphoric  acid,  and  excretes  four- 
fifths,  it  follows  that  she  should  be  credited  with 
four-fifths  of  the  valuation  for  every  ton  she  con- 
sumes. These  figures  are  an  important  item  in  the 
economy  of  the  dairy.  They  should  never  be  lost 
sight  of  in  the  dairy  balance-sheet.  In  the  aggre- 
gate it  means  the  difference  between  profit  and 
loss.  Of  the  annual  excrement  of  a  cow,  about 
two-thirds  is  voided  in  the  stable  or  yard.  If  the 
liquid  is  allowed  to  waste,  and  the  solids  are  ex- 
posed to  the  elements  and  deterioration  from  leach- 
ing, three-fourths  of  the  fertilizing  elements  in  the 
excrement  are  lost. 

Suppose  an  annual  per  capita  manure  production 
of  $24.  Two-thirds  of  this,  or  $16  worth,  is  left  in 
the  stable  or  yard.  But  it  does  not  follow,  of  course, 
that  the  farmer  will  secure  a  direct  return  of  the  $24 
worth  of  fertilizer  which  each  cow  makes,  even  if 
he  saves  it  all.  It  would,  however,  cost  him  that 
amount  to  put  back  in  the  soil  the  elements  con- 
tained in  the  excrement  if  he  were  to  buy  them  at 
commercial  rates.  Still,  in  purchasing  feeds  their 
fertilizing  values  should  be  considered.  They  form 
just  as  important  a  part  in  dollars  and  cents  as  the 
feed  value  of  the  product. 


CHAPTER  XIV 


CARE  OF  THE  MILK 

AFTER  the  milk  has  been  properly  and  safely  de- 
livered in  the  dairy-room  the  really  skilled  work  of 
the  dairy  begins.  The  cow  has  performed  her  work. 
The  responsibilities  from  that  time  on  rest  with  the 
butter-maker. 

There  are  two  methods  in  common  use  in  sep- 
arating the  cream  from  the  milk :  the  gravity  process 
and  the  mechanical  separator.  After  years  of  experi- 
ence and  observation  the  writer  does  not  hesitate 
in  expressing  a  preference  for  the  gravity  process 
where  the  conditions  are  favorable  for  its  use.  In 
former  times  shallow  pans  were  used,  in  which, 
under  the  most  careful  methods,  a  large  percentage — 
often  in  warm  weather  amounting  to  nearly  20  per 
cent. — of  the  butter  fat  was  lost.  This  process  was 
later  improved  by  surrounding  the  pans  with  an 
outer  jacket,  through  which  the  water  was  allowed 
to  circulate.  For  some  years  these  pans  were  in 
great  favor.  They  enabled  the  operator  to  control 
the  temperature,  independent  of  outside  conditions. 

Later  some  inventive  genius  and  keen  observer 
originated  the  deep-setting  process.  It  operates  on 
the  theory  that  rapid  cooling  of  the  milk  causes  the 
cream  or  fat  to  rise  rapidly  to  the  surface.  It  also 
keeps  the  milk  from  souring  and  thickening,  which 
condition  prevents  cream  from  rising.  This  process 
consists  in  putting  the  milk  in  cans  about  eighteen 

93 


94 


PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 


inches  deep  and  immersing  them  in  water  below  45°. 
The  deep-setting  process  is  a  great  improvement  over 
former  methods.  As  a  rule,  not  over  0.4  of  i  per 
cent,  of  butter  fat  is  left  in  the  skim  milk.  To  be 
properly  used,  cold  running  water  should  be  in  the 


FIG.    l6 THE  COOLEY  ELEVATOR  CREAMER 

dairy-room.  Ice  is  also  essential.  An  improved  form 
of  the  apparatus  used  in  this  process  is  shown  in 
Fig.  1 6. 

Finally  the  centrifugal  process  came  into  use. 
It  operates  on  the  principle  that  casein,  ash,  and 
water  are  of  greater  specific  gravity  than  butter  fat, 


CARE    OF     THE     MILK 


95 


and  that,  if  revolved  rapidly,  they  will  pass  to  the 
outside  of  the  whirling  column  of  milk,  leaving  the 
light  or  fatty  part  of  the  milk  in  the  center.  A 
means  of  discharge  being  provided  for  the  outside 


FIG.  17 THE  DE  LAVAL  CREAM  SEPARATOR 

BIRD" 


HUMMING 


of  the  column,  and  another  for  the  inside,  or  center, 
the  fat  or  cream  will  come  from  one  opening  and 
the  skim  milk  from  the  other.  Various  inventions 
and  improvements  have  contributed  to  make  the 
centrifugal  separator  almost  perfect  in  its  opera- 


96  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

tion.     Often  not  more  than  one-tenth  of  i  per  cent 
of  butter   fat  remains  in  the  milk  after  separation; 


FIG.    l8 — IMPROVED    U.    S.    CREAM    SEPARATOR    LOW 
SUPPLY  CAN 

that  is,  one  pound  of  fat  in  one  thousand  pounds  of 
milk. 

These  are  great  improvements  on  the  methods 
used  in  the  days  of  our  fathers.  They  have  added 
at  large  per  cent,  to  the  possible  profits  of  the 


CARE    OF     THE     MILK  97 

dairy.  Among  the  advantages  of  the  centrifugal 
separator  is  that  of  having  warm  skim-milk  for  the 
calves.  An  owner  of  one  of  the  first  of  the  centri- 
fugal separators  informed  a  guest  at  his  break- 
fast-table that  butter  on  the  table  was  made  from 
milk  which  had  been  taken  from  the  cow  that  morn- 
ing. The  cream  was  churned  sweet  in  order  to 
show  the  wonderful  advancement  in  scientific  dairy- 
ing. Forms  of  leading  separators  are  shown  in 
Figs.  17  and  18. 

GRAVITY  SETTING  FOR  CREAM 

The  writer  claims  the  credit  of  having  originated 
a  new  method  for  raising  cream  by  the  gravity 
process.  By  its  use  the  milk  is  creamed  as  per- 
fectly as  by  the  best  separators  and  at  less  expense. 
Some  years  since  he  was  raising  his  cream  by  the 
ordinary  method  of  immersing  the  cans  in  ice-water. 
One  August  he  ran  short  of  ice,  and  had  to  econo- 
mize in  its  use.  He  had  been  using  a  large  vat, 
or  box,  lined  with  zinc.  In  this  he  put  a  water-tight 
partition  across  the  middle,  and  ran  spring-water  into 
one  end.  Ice  was  put  in  the  water  in  the  other  end. 
The  cans  of  milk  were  first  placed  in  the  spring- 
water,  which  was  at  about  54°.  After  cooling  to 
that  temperature  they  were  carefully  lifted  into  the 
ice-water,  so  as  not  to  disturb  the  rising  cream.  The 
only  object  sought  was  the  saving  of  ice.  But  on 
the  first  morning  the  cans  showed  more  cream  than 
had  previously  been  obtained  from  the  same  cows. 
To  make  sure  he  mixed  two  cans  of  warm,  fresh 
milk,  and  put  equal  quantities  back  into  the  two 


90  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

cans,  setting  one  in  the  ice-water  and  the  other  in 
the  spring-water.  After  two  or  three  hours  the 
one  in  the  spring-water  was  transferred  to  the  ice- 
water,  with  the  same  result  as  before.  The  next 
night  four  cans  of  milk  were  mixed  in  the  same 
manner  and  the  previous  experiment  repeated,  with 
the  same  result.  Three  samples  of  milk  from  each 
can,  the  first  from  an  inch  below  the  cream  line, 
the  second  from  the  middle,  and  the  third  from  an 
inch  below  the  bottom  of  the  can,  were  tested 
for  butter  fat.  In  the  double-setting  cans  the  first 
sample  contained  but  little  fat;  that  from  the  single- 
setting  can  showed  the  milk  rich  in  fat.  The  sample 
from  the  single  setting  showed  4-10  of  i  per  cent.; 
that  from  double  setting,  only  a  mere  trace — less  than 
i -20  of  i  per  cent. 

The  double-setting  process  was  at  once  adopted. 
Repeatedly  tests  have  shown  rarely  over  1-20  of  i 
per  cent,  fat  after  twelve  or  fourteen  hours'  setting. 
Ordinarily  the  milk  is  allowed  to  set  from  sixteen 
to  eighteen  hours,  but  fourteen  hours'  setting  is 
sufficient.  The  author  believes  that  better  butter- 
butter  which  holds  its  grain  and  flavor  better — can 
be  made  by  the  gravity  process  than  by  the  centri- 
fugal method. 

A  very  neat  argument  is  made  by  separator  agents 
who  display  the  filth,  or  "separator  slime,"  gathered 
by  the  separator,  and  say:  "See  what  we  clean  from 
your  milk  That  goes  into  the  butter  under  the 
gravity  process."  But  does  it?  It  goes  to  the  out- 
side of  the  separator  because  it  is  heavier  than  the 
butter  fat  or  the  milk.  Cream  rises  in  the  milk  be- 
cause it  is  the  lightest  substance  in  it.  The  same 


CARE    OF    THE    MILK  99 

law  that  takes  the  filth  to  the  outside  of  the  separator 
would  prevent  it  rising  with  and  into  the  cream.  Its 
tendency  is  downward.  At  the  writer's  suggestion 
an  experiment  was  made  at  one  of  our  experiment 
stations.  This  proved  that  gravity  process  cream  is 
as  clean  as  that  produced  by  the  centrifugal  process. 
Gravity  process  carries  less  casein,  ash,  etc.,  into  the 
cream  than  the  separator  process.  This  discovery  of 
an  improved  gravity  method  of  raising  cream  and 
another  in  cream  ripening,  to  be  mentioned  hereafter, 
the  writer  considers  as  important  advancements  in 
the  art  of  butter-making. 

RIPENING    OF    CREAM 

Bacteria  are  the  dairyman's  best  friends.  The 
science,  or  knowledge,  of  bacterial  growth  as  ap- 
plicable to  the  dairy  has  become  a  matter  of  prac- 
tical utility  at  a  comparatively  recent  date. 
Thorough  knowledge  of  it  is,  however,  an  important 
branch  of  the  dairyman's  education.  How  to  develop 
and  encourage  the  growth  of  the  desirable,  and 
prevent  the  appearance  of  the  undesirable,  are  im- 
portant points  for  the  dairyman  to  know. 

Bacteriologists  inform  us  that  germ  growth  in  milk 
is  very  rapid.  Bacteria  increase  in  geometrical  ratio, 
doubling  their  number  under  favorable  conditions 
several  times  every  hour.  Undesirable  bacteria  are 
but  another  name  for  filth.  Where  they  get  the  start 
of  the  dairyman  no  prime  dairy  product  can  be  made. 
They  abound  in  poorly  kept  stables  and  on  unclean 
cows.  Hundreds  of  thousands  of  them  drop  into 
the  milk-pail  from  the  teats,  udder,  and  body  of  an 


IOO  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

uncleaned  cow  during  milking.  They  are  too  small 
to  be  seen  by  the  naked  eye,  but  their  work  soon  be- 
comes apparent  to  the  taste  and  smell.  They  may  be, 
to  a  great  degree,  eliminated  by  whitewashing  the 
stables,  keeping  the  cobwebs  and  dust  and  dirt  swept 
out,  carding  and  brushing  the  cows,  and  using  good 
clean  bedding.  The  end  of  the  teat  furnishes  a  home 
for  bacteria,  and  the  first  few  streams  of  milk  from 
each  teat  teem  with  them. 

A  temperature  of  50°  is  most  favorable  to  the 
growth  of  bacteria.  Where  the  temperature  of 
cream  or  milk  is  kept  below  50°  the  growth  of  bac- 
teria, desirable  and  undesirable,  is  retarded.  It  nearly 
ceases  at  45°.  The  effort  of  the  dairyman  must  be 
to  prevent  the  presence  of  filth  bacteria.  To  ac- 
complish this  the  first  and  last  rule  is  cleanliness.  It 
was  a  great  discovery  to  find  that  the  ripening  and 
curing  of  cream  is  caused  by  the  growth  of  bacteria, 
the  germ  of  ferment.  It  is  the  key  to  the  solution  of 
many  of  the  difficulties  met  in  the  manufacture  of 
butter. 

If  the  ripening  of  cream  is  merely  another  name 
for  the  growth  of  bacteria,  it  follows  that  there  is 
a  period  in  the  ripening  when  the  cream  will  make 
butter  of  better  grain  and  flavor  than  at  another  time. 
It  also  follows  that  cream  twelve  hours  old  cannot 
be  mixed  with  that  twenty-four  hours  old,  thirty-six, 
forty-eight,  sixty,  and  the  mixture  be  called  twenty- 
four-hour  bacteria,  any  more  than  a  mixture  of  corn, 
oats,  and  peas  can  be  called  corn.  The  reasoning 
man  at  once  determines  that  the  cream  must  be  kept 
cold  and  sweet  until  enough  has  been  accumulated 
for  a  churning;  then  ripened  all  in  one  mass  as 


CARE    OF     THE     MILK  IOI 

rapidly    and    as    perfectly    as    experiment    and    ex- 
perience direct. 

KEEPING  THE  CREAM   SWEET 

Until  the  commencement  of  the  ripening  process 
immersion  in  ice-cold  water  is  all  that  is  needed  to 
keep  the  cream  sweet  as  successive  skimmings  are 
added.  Cream  may  be  kept  sweet  in  this  manner  for 
three  or  four  days  in  summer  without  injury.  If 
perfect  butter  is  to  be  made  the  cream  must  be 
ripened  in  one  body.  If  several  cans  of  cream,  taken 
from  the  same  body,  be  set  in  a  room  kept  at  a  uni- 
form temperature,  they  will  not  all  ripen  together  and 
reach  the  proper  condition  for  churning  at  the  same 
time.  There  will  often  be  four  or  five  hours'  dif- 
ference. In  the  ripening  of  cream  there  is  a  point  at 
which,  if  churned,  butter  of  a  delicate  nutty  flavor 
can  be  secured.  If  churned  too  soon  or  too  late  this  is 
lost.  The  result  is  a  loss  of  several  cents  a  pound 
from  the  market  value  of  the  product. 

A    STARTER 

It  has  already  been  stated  that  the  ripening  of 
cream  is  the  development  of  the  bacteria  of  fermen- 
tation. Perfect  butter  depends  largely  upon  this  de- 
velopment being  perfect.  In  all  cream  there  are 
more  or  less  foreign  bacteria  detrimental  to  the 
production  of  first-class  butter.  It  is  important  that 
the  proper  bacteria  be  developed  rapidly  and  ahead 
of  the  other  forms  existing  in  the  cream.  To  do 
this  the  cream  ready  to  ripen  should  be  thoroughly 
inoculated  with  the  proper  kind  of  bacteria,  instead 
of  awaiting  the  slower  process  of  natural  develop- 


IO2  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

ment.  To  produce  this  effect,  what  is  known  as  a 
starter  is  used.  The  most  approved  method  of  using 
this  is  as  follows : 

Put  a  quart  or  more  of  milk  from  a  cow  as 
nearly  fresh  as  possible,  and  after  the  animal  has 
been  partly  milked,  in  a  clean  glass  jar,  and  set  it  in 
a  reasonably  warm  place,  suitable  for  ripening 
cream,  from  65°  to  70°,  and  wait  for  it  to  sour  to 
about  the  thickening  point.  If  somewhat  thickened 
it  will  do  no  hurt.  There  should  be  from  3  to  5  per 
cent,  as  much  starter  as  cream.  Take  the  amount  of 
good,  sweet  skimmed  milk  necessary  for  the  amount 
of  starter  needed,  and  heat  it  to  about  180°  for  fifteen 
minutes.  This  kills  all  forms  of  germ  life.  Re- 
duce the  temperature  to  about  70°  and  add  and  stir 
in  the  starter  made  in  the  glass  jar,  which  must  be 
covered  with  a  cloth  to  allow  the  gas  generated  to 
escape,  and  at  the  same  time  keep  out  all  dust  and 
bacteria  floating  in  the  air.  The  liquid  should  be 
stirred  occasionally  and  allowed  to  stand  until  nicely 
soured  to  about  the  thickening  point,  when  it  is 
ready  for  use.  Put  this  in  the  cream  that  is  ready 
for  ripening  and  stir  in  well. 

A  quart  of  starter  to  twenty  or  twenty-five  of 
cream  is  enough,  but  less  will  do.  The  cream  should 
be  warmed  to  62°  or  65°  in  summer,  and  three  or 
four  degrees  warmer  in  winter,  and  the  whole  mass 
thoroughly  stirred  every  few  hours  until  the  ripen- 
ing is  complete.  Cream  is  properly  ripened  in  from 
eighteen  to  twenty-three  hours.  But  curing  is  not 
to  be  measured  by  hours.  Condition  is  the  sole 
guide. 


CARE    OF    THE    MILK  IO3 

CHURNING    POINT 

There  are  several  practical  tests  to  be  used  to 
determine  the  churning  point. 

Taste. — The  cream  should  be  just  slightly  acid, 
enough  to  give  a  clearly  defined  acid  taste,  but  not 
what  would  be  called  sour. 

Appearance. — At  the  churning  point  the  cream 
will  have  the  smooth,  velvety,  shiny  appearance 
which  comes  just  prior  to  the  actual  thickening. 
Wrinkles  will  form  ahead  of  an  instrument  or  paddle 
slowly  passed  through  the  cream. 

Texture. — At  the  proper  point  of  fermentation  for 
churning,  if  a  dipperful  of  the  cream  be  taken  up 
and  poured  back  it  will  cut  a  smooth  hole  in  the 
body  of  the  cream,  like  oil  or  molasses,  and  will 
not  spatter. 

All  of  these  conditions  should  appear  about  the  same 
time.  The  oily  pour  will  come  slightly  in  advance 
of  the  others.  The  taste  is  among  the  most  reliable 
tests,  but  all  should  be  considered. 


CHAPTER  XV 


DEVICE  FOR  RIPENING   CREAM 

IN  storing  and  ripening  cream  the  control  of 
temperature  is  of  vital  importance.  It  is,  at  the  same 
time,  a  matter  most  difficult  to  master.  One  authority 
says :  "  Keep  your  cream  cold  until  ready  to  ripen 
the  whole  churning,  then  raise  the  temperature  to 
62°  and  keep  it  there.1'  Another  told  how  he  keeps 
it  cold,  and  then  raises  the  temperature  by  setting  the 
cans  of  cream  in  a  vat  of  warm  water  until  the  cream 
reaches  about  62°.  How  to  do  this  he  did  not  state. 
Steam,  which  must  stand  at  212^/2°  in  order  to  be 
steam,  will  not  maintain  an  even  temperature  with- 
out constant  watching  and  regulating. 

The  author  then  tried  a  plan  of  his  own.  He 
made  a  box  about  three  feet  square  and  high  enough 
to  contain  the  cream-pails.  This  was  set  on  legs 
about  eighteen  inches  high ;  in  the  middle  of  the 
bottom  a  hole,  a  foot  or  more  square,  was  cut 
and  covered  with  sheet  iron  tightly  nailed  on  to 
prevent  outside  odors  entering  the  box.  A  false  bot- 
tom, one  inch  above  the  true  bottom,  was  then  put  in. 
In  this  holes  were  bored  all  about  the  outside  edges, 
but  none  in  the  middle,  to  insure  circulation  of  the 
warm  air.  A  small  iron  oil-stove  was  placed  under 
the  iron-covered  opening.  Then  a  hole  was  cut  in  the 
side  of  the  box  and  covered  with  glass,  behind 
which  was  a  thermometer.  The  apparatus  was  a 
partial  success,  and  a  great  improvement  over  former 

104 


DEVICE  FOR  RIPENING  CREAM  IO5 

methods;  the  flame  could  be  regulated  and  the 
temperature  controlled  quite  well. 

However,  two  difficulties  arose.  Although  the  cans 
of  cream  were  at  the  same  temperature,  they  would 
not  all  ripen  at  the  same  time.  Second,  air  is  too 
variable  a  medium  for  transmitting  the  heat;  it 
heats  and  cools  too  quickly,  and  requires  too  close 
watching.  By  substituting  warm  water  for  warm 
air,  and  substituting  a  cream-vat  for  the  cream  pails, 
these  difficulties  were  overcome. 

An  apparatus,  consisting  of  a  wooden  box,  was 
made,  47  x  24  x  18  inches.  At  the  corners  legs 
were  fastened,  so  that  the  top  of  the  box  stands  34 
inches  high.  The  vat  is  36  x  12  x  16  inches.  The 
top  of  the  vat  is  fastened  to  a  frame-work  with  side- 
pieces  long  enough  to  extend  four  inches  beyond  the 
sides  of  the  box  when  resting  upon  it.  The  pieces 
of  this  frame-work  to  which  the  vat  is  fastened  are 
i  x  2l/4  inches.  These  stiffen  the  sides  and  edges  of 
the  vat,  making  it  substantial.  A  space  of  about  four 
inches  is  left  between  the  vat  and  the  sides  of  the  box 
and  2l/2  or  3  inches  between  the  bottom  of  the  box 
and  the  bottom  of  the  cream-vat.  The  box  is  lined 
with  heavy  zinc;  galvanized  iron  will  do  as  well. 
The  vat  is  made  of  heavy  tin  with  rounded  bottom, 
which  form  is  much  preferable  to  a  flat  bottom  for 
many  apparent  reasons. 

A  hole  sixteen  inches  square  is  cut  in  the  bottom 
of  the  box,  through  the  wood,  exposing  the  metal 
lining.  The  edges  of  the  wood  about  this  opening 
are  covered  with  asbestos  packing,  to  protect  it  from 
catching  fire.  The  legs  are  high  enough  to  bring 
the  bottom  of  the  box  about  eighteen  inches  from 


io6 


PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 


the  floor.  One  end  of  the  vat  comes  close  to  the  end 
of  the  box.  At  the  other  end  is  a  space  of  several 
inches  for  the  admission  of  ice  when  needed.  Ice 
can  also  be  put  in  the  four-inch  space  at  the  sides. 
The  top  of  the  vat  is  thus  about  two  inches  above 
the  top  of  the  box,  for  the  frame  of  the  vat  to  fit  into 
to  keep  it  in  place.  A  lid  is  attached  to  each  side 
of  the  box  by  hinges,  so  as  to  drop  against  the  side 
of  the  vat  and  close  the  space  between  the  vat  and 


FIG.    IQ — FRONT  VIEW   OF  CREAM   RIPENER 

the  box  tight  at  the  top.  The  same  is  done  with  the 
end,  so  as  to  close  the  space  between  the  box  and 
the  vat  all  the  way  around.  At  one  end  at  the  bottom 
of  the  box  a  faucet  is  fitted,  from  which  to  draw 
off  the  water.  At  the  other  end  another  faucet  is 
connected  with  the  cream-vat.  This  is  made  with 
screw  couplings  and  packed  so  as  to  allow  it  to  be 


DEVICE  FOR  RIPENING  CREAM  IO/ 

removed  when  cleaning  is  necessary.  This  faucet 
should  be  smaller  than  one  inch  bore.  It  is  a  con- 
venience but  not  a  necessity,  as  the  cream  can  be 
dipped. 

The  cream- vat  should  be  covered  by  a  lid,  jointed 
in  the  middle  with  hinges,  so  as  to  be  turned  back  at 
either  end;  or,  better  still,  it  may  be  covered  by 
two  or  more  thicknesses  of  cheese-cloth.  In  warm 
weather  this  should  always  be  used  as  a  cover  for 
the  vat.  The  lids  will  drop  down  and  hold  the 
cloth  in  place.  Some  strips  should  be  nailed  to  the 
legs  around  the  bottom  of  the  box,  projecting  three 
or  four  inches  below  it.  This  forms  a  chamber 
which  retains  the  air  heated  by  the  oil-stove.  The 
whole  should  be  substantially  made  and  the  wood- 
work should  be  well  painted.  A  small  three-chimney 
oil-stove,  costing  about  $1.50,  blocked  up  so  that 
the  top  of  the  burner  is  within  an  inch  or  two  of  the 
bottom  of  the  box,  will  furnish  the  necessary  heat. 
One  of  the  heat-retaining  strips  on  the  bottom  of 
the  box  should  be  hinged  so  that  the  stove  can  be 
put  under.  A  front  view  of  this  apparatus  complete  is 
given  in  Fig.  19,  a  side  view  in  Fig.  20. 

By  using  ice  in  summer  and  cold  water  in  winter 
this  device  will  keep  the  cream  at  a  temperature  be- 
low 50°.  When  enough  is  secured  for  churning,  the 
oil-stove  and  warm  water  control  the  temperature 
of  the  cream  while  ripening.  This  cream-ripener 
has  simplified  one  of  the  most  difficult  problems  in 
winter  dairying.  The  operator  soon  learns  how  to 
regulate  the  blaze  in  the  stove  so  that  he  can  leave 
the  ripener  all  night,  and  find  in  the  morning  the 
temperature  had  not  varied  more  than  a  degree  or 


lo8 


PROFITABLE     DAIRYING 


two.  It  requires  attention  not  oftener  than  once  in 
two  or  three  hours  during  the  day.  With  a  proper 
starter  the  cream  will  ripen  for  churning  in  about 
eighteen  hours. 

When    sufficient    cream    has    accumulated    for    a 
churning,    the   cold    water    should   be   partly    drawn 


FIG.   2O SIDE  VIEW   OF   CREAM   RIPENER 

off,  and  enough  boiling  water  added  to  bring  the 
temperature  up  to  the  desired  point,  about  160°,  but 
not  so  as  to  touch  the  bottom  of  the  vat.  This 
warm  water  coming  in  contact  with  the  vat  would 
heat  the  cream  at  the  point  of  contact  and  injure 


DEVICE  FOR  RIPENING  CREAM  ICK) 

it.  Over  the  exposed  portion  of  the  metal  bottom 
must  be  placed  a  piece  of  sheet  or  galvanized  iron 
about  eighteen  inches  square,  with  supports  at  the 
corners  and  one  in  the  middle,  so  as  to  raise  it  about 
an  inch.  The  corners  of  this  piece  may  be  turned 
down  an  inch  for  corner  supports,  and  a  small  block 
nailed  to  the  center  for  support  at  that  point.  This 
is  to  prevent  the  heating  water  from  rising  and 
coming  into  direct  contact  with  the  bottom  of  the 
cream-vat.  It  is  an  essential  part  of  the  ripener. 

When  the  stove  is  lighted  a  vapor  at  once  begins 
to  rise  and  surround  the  cream-vat.  If  the  cream 
be  frequently  stirred  the  desired  temperature  for 
ripening  will  soon  be  reached.  Cold  water  should 
be  added  from  time  to  time,  as  it  is  heated,  until  the 
warm  water  is  nearly  as  high  on  the  outside  of  the 
vat  as  the  cream  on  the  inside.  Then  the  blaze 
should  be  turned  down  until  there  is  just  enough  to 
keep  the  water  at  the  proper  temperature.  The 
temperature  of  the  cream  will  be  two  or  three  de- 
grees below  that  on  the  outside  of  the  vat.  The 
water  must  be  kept  at  a  temperature  to  maintain 
the  cream  at  the  proper  point — to  wit,  from  62°  to 
70°,  a  little  cooler  in  summer  than  in  winter. 
Temperature  at  exactly  62°  is  not  as  important  as  is 
generally  supposed. 

The  cream  should  be  stirred  from  time  to  time 
in  the  process  of  ripening  the  last  thing  before  re- 
tiring at  night  and  the  first  thing  in  the  morning. 
If,  when  the  cream  has  about  reached  the  churning 
point,  the  water  be  partly  drawn  off  and  enough 
hot  water  added  to  bring  the  temperature  up  to 
about  85°,  and  be  left  at  that  point  about  fifteen 


I  TO 


PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 


minutes  and  then  cooled,  by  adding  cold  water  until 
reduced  to  60°,  it  will  churn  much  more  readily  and 
perfectly    and    the    quality    of    the 
butter  will  not  be  impaired. 

On  one  occasion  when  the  author 
was  using  the  hot-air  ripener  the 
temperature  was  accidentally  al- 
lowed to  get  to  85°.  The  whole 
churning  was  supposed  to  be  ruin- 
ed, but  the  temperature  was  re- 
duced to  60°  and  the  cream  churn- 
ed. It  produced  excellent  butter. 
After  that,  raising  the  temperature 
in  this  way  has  been  tried  with  suc- 
cess. The  appliance  described,  with 
proper  conditions,  renders  winter 
dairying  as  easy  as  summer  dairy- 
ing. It  places  the  temperature  of 
the  cream  absolutely  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  operator  at  all  seasons 
of  the  year.  Silage,  clover  hay, 
the  Cooley  can,  and  water  cream- 
ripener  control  the  question  of  but- 
FIG.  21 —  ter-making  at  all  times  of  the  year. 
CREAM  AGITATOR  As  perfect  butter  can  be  made  in 
January  as  in  June. 

A    CREAM    AGITATOR 

The  cream  agitator,  illustrated  herewith,  works 
perfectly.  A  similar  one  is  advertised  by  some 
supply  house  at  twenty-five  cents.  It  is  made  of 
medium  weight  tin,  slightly  conical  in  shape,  like  a 
saucer  bottom  side  up.  The  disk  is  about  nine  inches 


DEVICE  FOR  RIPENING  CREAM  III 

across.  At  the  apex  is  fastened  a  tin  handle  of 
convenient  length,  about  twenty-four  inches.  The 
disk  is  punctured  full  of  half-inch  holes,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  21.  As  the  agitator  is  pushed  through 
the  cream,  back  and  forth,  it  cuts  the  cream  and 
prevents  lumps  from  forming,  and  stirs  more  thor- 
oughly than  the  paddle  or  large  spoon.  It  is  an 
instrument  that,  for  the  purpose,  would  be  hard  to 
improve  upon. 


CHAPTER  XVI 


CHURNING 

CHURNING  is  something  more  than  a  mechanical 
process.  Properly  ripened  cream  will  churn  in  nearly 
the  same  space  of  time  for  each  churning.  The  intro- 
duction of  the  concussion  churn  did  as  much  for 
this  branch  of  the  dairy  as  the  invention  and  im- 
provements in  other  departments  have  done  for 
them. 

Some  fifteen  or  twenty  years  ago  a  concussion 
barrel  churn  was  advertised  which  was  claimed 
would  not  only  produce  better  butter  than  the  old 
method,  but  more  of  it  from  the  same  quantity  and 
quality  of  cream.  The  manufacturers  sent  the 
writer  one  on  trial,  with  privilege  of  returning  if  not 
satisfactory.  On  its  arrival  the  cream  was  weighed 
and  put  in.  The  milk  from  which  the  cream  was 
raised  and  the  butter  also  were  weighed.  The 
same  process  was  followed  with  the  cream  churned  in 
the  old  dash  churn.  There  was  a  difference  of 
12  per  cent,  in  the  amount  of  butter  produced.  The 
test  was  repeated  for  three  separate  alternate  churn- 
ings  in  each  churn,  with  substantially  the  same  re- 
sults. The  Babcock  butter  test  showed  the  missing 
butter  fat  to  be  in  the  buttermilk  from  the  dash 
churn. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  the  concussion  churn. 

112 


CHURNING  113 

The  barrel  churn  gives  two  concussions  to  each 
revolution.  The  square  or  box  churn  gives  four,  and 
the  sexangular,  or  Fenner,  gives  six.  The  last  turns 
easier  than  any  of  the  revolving  churns.  The  rect- 
angular churn,  pivoted  at  opposite  corners,  also 
gives  six  concussions  to  each  revolution,  and  for 
churning  small  quantities  of  cream  it  is  an  excellent 
churn.  It  does  not  seem  to  be  adapted  to  churning 


FIG.    22 — THE    DAVIS    SWING    CHURN 

large  quantities.  The  four  and  six  sided  churns  are 
adapted  to  dairies  of  almost  any  size.  The  Davis, 
or  swing,  churn  (Fig.  22)  does  good  work,  and 
for  hand  use  can  be  used  in  larger  dairies  than  most 
other  churns.  The  sixty-gallon  churn,  capable  of 
churning  twenty  to  thirty  gallons  of  cream,  is  per- 
fectly adapted  to  hand  use.  In  the  writer's  judg- 


114  PROFITABLE     DAIRYING 

ment,  when  power  is  used,  the  revolving  churn  is 
preferable.  The  Davis  churn  has  one  decided  ad- 
vantage over  the  revolving  churn;  it  admits  of  per- 
fect ventilation  and  allows  the  gas  to  escape. 

The  capacity  or  cubical  contents  of  the  churn 
should  be  more  than  twice  the  volume  of  cream  to 
be  churned.  To  secure  perfect  work  the  churn 
should  be  not  more  than  half  full  at  the  time  of 
churning.  In  properly  ripened  cream  the  butter  will 
all  "  come"  about  the  same  time.  When  the  butter 
has  nicely  granulated  in  grains  about  the  size  of 
wheat  kernels  the  buttermilk  should  be  replaced  by 
salted  water.  This  salted  water  is  not  for  the 
purpose  of  salting  the  butter,  but  for  cutting  the 
casein.  It  also  tends  to  remove  the  buttermilk  and 
cleanse  the  butter. 

The  churn  should  be  slightly  stirred  for  a  minute 
or  so — not  enough  to  gather  the  butter,  but  enough 
to  rinse  it.  The  water  should  be  drawn  of?  and 
fresh  water  substituted.  The  third  rinsing,  when 
drawn  off,  ought  to  show  but  little  coloring.  In 
former  times  the  butter  was  taken  out  of  the  churn 
and  worked  in  a  wooden  bowl  to  get  rid  of  the 
buttermilk.  By  the  time  this  had  been  done  the  grain 
had  been  so  injured  that  the  butter  would  not  to-day 
sell  for  first  class.  This  was  not  all.  Standard  but- 
ter of  to-day  contains  about  83  per  cent,  of  butter 
fat,  12  per  cent,  to  14  per  cent,  of  pure  water  and 
salt,  and  the  balance  casein,  ash,  and  other  ma- 
terial. In  the  old  process,  by  the  time  the  buttermilk 
was  worked  out,  most  of  the  water  was  also  gone,  so 
that  it  took  about  ten  pounds  more  of  butter  fat 
to  make  a  hundredweight  of  butter  than  it  does  to- 


CHURNING  115 

day.  This  increase  in  percentage  of  butter  fat,  and 
the  poorer  quality  of  the  product,  made  a  loss  of 
from  12  to  15  per  cent.,  often  more,  on  the  market 
product. 

WORKING    AND    SALTING 

When  the  butter  has  been  washed  or  rinsed  in  the 
manner  described  it  will  have  begun  to  gather.  The 
water  for  this  rinsing  should  be  at  a  temperature  of 
about  55° — not  cold  enough  to  make  the  butter 
crumble,  nor  warm  enough  to  make  it  salvey.  The 
butter  is  then  put  into  the  worker,  and,  after  being 
partially  worked  together  by  passing  the  worker  over 
it  two  or  three  times,  so  as  to  spread  it  out,  the  salt 
is  added.  This  should  be  done  through  a  sieve,  and 
spread  evenly  over  the  surface  of  the  butter. 
Salting  should  be  done  to  meet  the  taste  or  de- 
mand of  the  customer.  It  differs  in  different 
localities.  As  a  rule,  from  three- fourths  to  one 
ounce  to  the  pound  is  sufficient.  Many  customers 
prefer  one-half  ounce  to  the  pound.  Butter  salted 
in  the  proportion  of  one-half  at  one  ounce  to  the 
pound,  one-fourth  at  one  and  one-fourth  ounces,  and 
the  balance  at  one-half  ounce,  will  meet  the  demand 
of  average  village  custom.  The  dealer  will  in  a 
short  time  tell  the  producer  what  the  demands  of  his 
customers  are.  The  different  churnings  need  not  be 
separated  for  the  purpose  of  salting. 

The  butter  should  be  worked  just  enough  to  work 
in  the  salt,  no  more.  It  should  stand  for  two  or 
three  hours  for  the  salt  to  get  well  dissolved,  and 
then  worked  a  little  more.  The  mechanical  butter 
workers  in  ordinary  use  work  very  rapidly,  and 


Il6  PROFITABLE     DAIRYING 

there  is  danger  of  overworking.  As  soon  as  the 
butter  begins  to  have  a  waxy  appearance  it  is  time 
to  stop  in  the  second  working.  The  consistency 
at  the  time  of  this  second  working  is  important. 
The  temperature  of  the  room  must  be  such  as  to 
make  the  butter  just  right  in  this  respect — to  wit, 
about  60°.  Judgment  and  practice  are  the  only 
guides.  When  the  working  is  done  the  texture 
should  be  such  as  to  admit  of  its  being  packed  or 
printed  without  crumbling  or  breaking,  and  should 
be  sufficiently  plastic  to  pack  readily  into  the  tub 
and  at  the  same  time  hold  its  shape. 

The  demand  of  the  day  is  for  pound  or  one- 
half  pound  prints.  Pound  prints  that  are  twice  as 
long  as  wide,  with  a  double  stamp,  are  as  a  rule 
preferable.  The  stamp  should  have  a  particular  de- 
sign, something  which  will  distinguish  the  brand 
from  other  butter.  If  the  quality  is  prime  there 
will  soon  be  an  increased  demand,  and  the  price  may 
be  increased. 

Grain,  flavor,  color,  and  texture  are  the  leading 
points  to  be  attained  in  butter-making.  Grain  and 
texture  are  closely  allied.  Butter  worked  with  a 
ladle,  unless  the  utmost  care  is  used,  is  liable  to  be 
salvey;  the  sliding  of  the  ladle  over  the  butter  de- 
stroys the  grain.  The  ladle  should  be  used  only  to 
press  the  butter.  Texture  is  indicated  by  general 
appearance  and  by  the  breaking  apart  of  the  butter. 
If  texture  and  grain  be  all  right,  the  butter  will  show 
a  granular  appearance  like  a  piece  of  broken  cast 
iron.  It  should  not  show  a  crumbly  appearance, 
the  result  of  working  when  too  cold,  or  not  work- 
ing enough;  nor  a  salvey  appearance,  the  result  of 


CHURNING  117 

overworking  or  working  when  too  warm.  When 
broken  the  end  should  show  minute  particles  of 
brine,  small  and  clear  and  sparkling,  diffused  all 
through  the  butter. 

Flavor  is  better  tasted  than  described.  The  test 
is:  allow  a  small  piece  to  melt  in  the  mouth  and  in- 
hale the  breath  slowly  over  it  and  exhale  through 
the  nose.  The  nose  will  detect  any  improper  flavor 
sooner  than  the  palate.  Flavor  is  affected  in  many 
ways.  If  undesirable  bacteria  have  been  allowed  to 
get  into  the  milk  before  setting,  no  subsequent 
treatment  can  prevent  the  fault  showing  in  the 
flavor  of  the  butter.  Underripening  gives  a  flat 
flavor.  Overripening  is  even  more  injurious,  both 
to  flavor  and  texture;  the  butter  has  a  bitter  flavor 
and  quickly  becomes  rancid. 

Color  must  be  made  to  suit  the  market.  It  is  a 
matter  of  taste.  The  general  rule  is  a  medium  color, 
dark  enough  so  that  no  traces  of  a  lardy  appearance' 
remain.  Overripening  is  often  a  cause  of  mottled 
butter. 

One  motto  should  be  conspicuous  in  dairy  practice : 
"  Like  causes  produce  similar  results."  Methods 
and  practices  that  produce  prime  butter  at  one  time 
will  do  so  at  every  other  time.  If  there  be  a  dif- 
ference in  the  results  there  must  have  been  a  change 
in  the  causes.  When  a  prime  butter  has  been  made 
the  same  methods  should  be  followed  to  secure 
favorable  results  again. 

Good  sales  from  a  dairy  depend  upon  the  dairy's 
reputation.  This  is  made  by  the  uniform  quality  of 
the  products.  Modern  methods  and  appliances  per- 
mit almost  perfect  uniformity  in  practice.  Where 
this  is  attained,  uniform  results  must  follow. 


CHAPTER  XVII 


MARKETING    DAIRY    BUTTER 

THERE  are  many  ways  of  marketing  dairy  butter. 
Local  conditions  must  be  considered  in  determining 
the  method  by  which  the  products  of  the  dairy  are 
to  be  put  upon  the  market.  In  former  times  it  was 
the  practice  to  pack  the  produce  of  the  season  in 
tubs  or  firkins  and  sell  in  the  fall.  This  method 
is  now  nearly  obsolete.  The  market  demands  a  fresh 
product.  If  a  good  price  is  to  be  obtained  for  it,  the 
product  must  be  prime. 

Prints  are  rapidly  coming  into  favor  for  both 
city  and  village  trade.  Local  markets  are  prefer- 
able where  possible.  It  is  generally  possible  to 
obtain  a  market  near  home  for  butter  superior  to 
one's  rivals.  Some  local  dealer  should  handle  the 
entire  product,  which  should  be  delivered  to  him  at 
regular  intervals.  The  quality  and  salting  must  be 
kept  the  same  at  all  time.  A  printed  sign  should 
supplied  for  the  use  of  the  dealer — as,  "Glen  Farm 
Butter  for  Sale  Here."  When  customers  find  that 
they  can  rely  upon  a  brand  every  time  they  will  call 
for  it.  Not  only  that,  they  will  mention  the  matter 
to  their  neighbors,  and  the  dealer  will  call  for  more 
and  more.  If  the  brand  be  placed  on  any  butter  that 
is  a  little  off,  the  trade  will  be  quickly  injured.  The 
customer  may  stand  it  once,  but  the  second  time  you 
have  lost  him.  No  one  can  afford  to  allow  a  single 
print  not  strictly  prime  to  go  to  the  market  with 

118 


MARKETING    DAIRY    BUTTER  Up 

his  stamp  on  it.  If  he  finds  that  it  has  occurred 
he  should  see  that  the  dealer  replaces  the  inferior 
butter  at  once,  without  expense  to  dealer  or  pur- 
chaser. Custom  once  lost  is  hard  to  get  back.  If  a 
churning  is  not  prime,  it  should  be  put  in  a  tub 
and  sold  in  the  general  market. 

If  the  dairyman  lives  near  a  town  of  sufficient  size 
it  will  pay  him  to  make  contracts  for  custom  de- 
livery the  year  round  at  given  prices — one  price  from 
May  ist  to  October  ist,  and  another  price  from 
October  ist  to  May  ist.  As  a  rule,  a  fixed  price 
for  the  year  is  not  satisfactory.  When  butter  is  low 
in  the  summer,  customers  give  all  sorts  of  excuses 
for  not  wanting  as  much  as  usual.  When  it  is  high 
in  the  winter  they  will  want  more  than  the  usual 
weekly  allowance.  It  is  a  convenient  way  to  help 
out  their  neighbors  when  market  butter  is  scarce 
and  high.  It  is  hard  for  them  to  pay  in  summer 
several  cents  more  than  they  would  have  to  pay  in 
the  markets  and  their  cooking-butter  is  likely  to 
come  from  the  stores. 

A  NAME  FOR  THE  FARM  AND  A  BRAND  FOR 
THE  PRODUCT 

Each  farm  should  have  a  reputation  for  prime 
products.  Glen  Farm  Dairy,  the  name  of  the 
writer's  farm,  is  well-known  within  a  radius  of  one 
hundred  miles.  The  name  and  reputation  of  a 
farm  is  a  part  of  the  owner's  stock  in  trade.  This 
is  especially  true  in  the  dairy  business.  Merridale 
Farms,  of  New  York,  is  a  brand  which  brings  from 
thirty-five  cents  to  fifty  cents  a  pound  for  its  butter. 
The  same  butter  bearing  the  brand  of  an  unknown 


I2O  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

dairy  would  not  be  worth  two-thirds  the  price  "Merri- 
dale"  commands.  The  brand  should  be  uniform,  and, 
whether  initials  or  an  emblem,  it  should  be  used  only 
on  prime  butter.  It  should  also  mean  that  the  butter 
will  be  replaced  if  by  accident  an  inferior  grade 
is  stamped  with  it — in  short,  that  the  quality  is 
warranted.  A  little  printer's  ink,  judiciously  used, 
calling  the  attention  of  the  public  to  the  dairy  and 
its  products,  is  money  well  invested.  It  requires 
effort  to  make  a  reputation,  and  continued  vigilance 
and  effort  to  maintain  it. 

APPEARANCES    ON    THE    DAIRY    FARM 

The  external  surroundings  of  the  dairy  farm  have 
much  to  do  with  its  reputation.  Well-painted  build- 
ings, clean  whitewashed  stables,  clean-looking  cows, 
a  tidy  dairy,  generally  attractive  appearance  of  the 
house — all  form  important  parts  of  the  make-up  of 
the  dairy  farm.  They  are  loud-speaking  advertise- 
ments assisting  in  the  sale  of  the  products  at  an  at- 
tractive price.  Every  opportunity  should  be  taken 
advantage  of  to  show  possible  customers  and  their 
friends  over  the  buildings  and  premises.  Confidence 
in  one's  self  and  pride  in  the  business  will  soon  draw 
customers,  instead  of  forcing  the  dairyman  to  seek 
them.  It  is  not  at  all  difficult  in  this  way  to  secure 
five  cents  a  pound  above  the  average  local  markets 
in  a  short  time. 

In  delivering  to  special  customers,  one  dollar  a  hun- 
dred pounds  should  be  added  for  the  cost  of  delivering 
and  collecting,  which  last  should  be  done  as  often  as 
once  a  month.  In  making  weekly  deliveries  to  in- 
dividual customers  this  added  cost  must  be  con- 


MARKETING    DAIRY    BUTTER  121 

sidered.  Print  butter  will  not  retain  its  flavor  for 
more  than  two  or  three  weeks,  and  should  be  con- 
sumed within  that  time.  It  should,  therefore,  not 
be  allowed  to  accumulate  at  the  dealer's.  When  any 
left  over  is  more  than  two  weeks  old  it  should 
be  taken  back,  packed,  and  sold  as  tub  butter.  De- 
liveries to  local  dealers  should  always  be  placed 
where  there  are  no  foul  odors.  Fish,  kerosene,  to- 
bacco, and  the  like,  if  stored  near  it,  will  taint  the 
butter.  The  average  dealer  is  not  careful  enough 
about  these  matters. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 


THE  DAIRY  BARN 

THERE  is  in  agriculture,  as  in  all  other  kinds  of 
business,  an  indispensable  adjunct.  That  requisite 
is  a  man.  That  wanting,  all  other  conditions,  no 
matter  how  favorable,  will  bring  no  success.  The 
man  must  be  one  who  follows  his  business  because 
he  likes  it.  If  dollars  and  cents  alone  be  the  motive 
in  making  the  selection,  it  is  not  likely  to  be  many 
years  before  he  decides  that  some  other  business  is 
better  adapted  to  his  tastes  and  purposes.  Assuming 
that  the  first  motive  has  induced  the  man  to  select 
dairying  as  his  business,  and  that  he  has  entered  it 
with  the  determination  to  win  success  for  himself 
and  happiness  for  his  family,  his  first  thought  will 
be  to  surround  himself  with  the  conditions  which 
make  success  and  happiness  possible. 

One  of  the  first  requisites  for  succesful  dairying 
is  a  barn  adapted  to  the  purpose.  Three  elements 
deserve  prime  consideration :  light,  warmth,  and 
ventilation.  The  idea  of  ventilating  by  a  long  air- 
shaft,  such  as  is  often  found  in  barns,  should  be 
abandoned.  The  writer's  barn,  which  has  been 
largely  patterned  after,  has  been  used  for  ten 
years,  and  if  he  were  to  build  another  no  material 
changes  would  be  made  in  its  plan.  The  first 
problem  was  to  have  ventilation  but  to  eliminate 
draft,  no  matter  from  what  direction  the  wind 

122 


THE    DAIRY    BARN  123 

blew.  The  next  proposition  was  to  have  ventilation 
readily  controllable.  To  accomplish  these  ends  all 
parts  of  the  stable  had  to  be  as  nearly  air-tight  as 
possible,  except  at  the  points  from  which  ventilation 
was  to  be  secured. 

The  barn  is  of  the  type  known  as  basement — i.e., 
the  cow  stable  extending  under  the  entire  structure. 
The  first,  or  basement,  story  is  eight  feet  in  the 
clear.  There  are  windows  of  ample  size  on  every 
side,  so  that  the  stable  is  better  lighted  than  the 
average  living-room.  It  is  sided  up  with  surfaced 
lumber,  to  secure  an  even  surface  for  the  first 
covering.  The  surfaced  side  is  placed  inside  for 
whitewash.  This  course  of  boards  is  nailed  to  a 
strip  on  the  beam  and  sill,  one  inch  inside  of  the 
outer  edge  of  the  timbers,  so  that  the  next  sheeting 
comes  flush  with  the  outside.  Good  building  paper 
is  put  on  the  outside,  and  a  second  course  of  boards 
covers  the  whole,  carefully  breaking  the  joints. 
The  outside  course  of  boards  is  battened  with  freshly 
painted  strips,  painted  inside,  put  on  while  the  paint 
was  still  soft.  This  makes  the  joints  air-tight  all 
the  way  around,  and  prevents  the  entrance  of  air 
except  at  the  ventilator  made  for  the  purpose. 

FLOOR 

The  outside  measurement  of  the  width  of  the  barn 
is  thirty-eight  feet.  This  is  the  best  width  for  a 
stock  barn.  It  allows  about  seven  feet  for  a  feeding- 
alley  next  the  side  of  the  barn,  the  cows  facing 
the  outward.  It  also  allows  about  two  feet  for  a 
manger,  four  feet  six  inches  for  platform  for  cow,  in 


124  PROFITABLE     DAIRYING 

addition  to  the  room  taken  for  the  stanchion,  fourteen 
to  sixteen  inches  for  drop  and  eight  feet  for  drive- 
way between  the  drops,  with  similar  room  on  the 
opposite  side  for  a  double  row  of  cows.  Mangers 
of  box  form  that  come  to  a  level  with  the  cows' 
heads  should  be  avoided.  A  box  that  comes  to  the 
nose  of  the  cow  as  she  stands  catches  her  breath 
and  makes  her  breathe  the  same  air  over  and  over 
again,  contaminates  her  food,  and  renders  it  unpala- 
table, so  that  she  will  not  eat  it.  When  cows  face 
each  other,  with  a  narrow  feeding-alley  between, 
and  a  high  manger  before  each  cow,  the  conditions 
are  highly  unsanitary.  The  cow  breathes  not  only 
her  own  exhalation,  but  those  of  the  others  as  well; 
their  heads  are  in  the  warmer  atmosphere  and  the 
bodies  in  the  cooler — conditions  regarded  as  in- 
jurious to  health. 

In  the  barn  being  described  the  feeding-alley 
floors  are  ten  inches  above  the  level  of  the  cow 
platform  and  feeding-places.  A  slope  board,  or 
plank,  extends  from  the  edge  of  the  floor  to  the 
bottom  of  the  feeding-place.  The  bottom  of  this 
slope  board  should  not  be  over  twenty-three  inches 
from  the  front  of  the  stanchion.  More  than  this 
makes  a  cow  strain  to  reach  the  feed  at  the  front 
side  of  the  feeding-place,  and  in  doing  so  she  pushes 
her  bedding  from  under  her  into  the  gutter  be- 
hind. This  space,  ten  inches  deep  and  twenty-three 
inches  wide,  is  all  that  is  needed.  From  four  to  four 
feet  six  inches  should  be  allowed  from  stanchion  to 
gutter  for  standing  room.  Few  cows  are  less  than 
four  feet  long  in  body  and  few  more  than  four  feet 
six  inches.  From  the  edge  of  the  cow  platform  to 


THE    DAIRY    BARN  12$ 

the  bottom  of  the  drop,  or  gutter,  should  be  eight 
inches.  The  platform  should  slope  slightly  toward 
the  gutter.  One-half  an  inch  to  the  foot  is  plenty. 
Too  much  is  believed  to  produce  injurious  effects. 
The  level  of  the  driveway  should  be  two  inches 
lower  than  the  cow  platforms.  Drops  should  be 
from  fourteen  to  sixteen  inches  wide  and  water- 
tight. Driveways  should  be  eight  feet  wide,  no  more, 
no  less.  Wider  is  inconvenient  for  shoveling  the 
manure  on  manure  boat  or  wagon,  narrower  will 
make  the  whiffletrees  interfere  with  the  cows  when 
driving  through. 

In  the  past  few  years  there  has  been  so  great  an 
advance  in  the  price  of  lumber  that  the  cost  of 
construction  of  stable  floors  has  become  a  consider- 
able item.  Wood  floors  must  be  occasionally  re- 
placed. Cement  floors  seem  to  be  the  only  solution 
of  the  question.  Of  late  years  many  of  these  have  . 
been  put  in  and  are  in  successful  use.  It  seems  ad- 
visable to  arrange  for  wood  platforms  under  the 
cows.  Oak,  red  beech,  or  some  other  durable  wood 
can  be  imbedded  in  the  concrete  as  stringers  upon 
which  to  spike  the  platforms.  The  surface  of  the 
concrete  must  be  roughened  to  prevent  slipping. 
When  once  put  in,  these  floors  are  permanent,  and 
in  the  end  are  cheap.  One  great  advantage  is  the 
saving  of  all  liquid  manure,  an  important  item. 

STANCHIONS 

The  stanchion  should  be  three  feet  four  inches  to 
three  feet  six  inches  from  center  to  center;  three  feet 
is  too  narrow  and  crowds  the  cows.  This  is  a  place 


126  PROFITABLE     DAIRYING 

where  inches  count.  A  rigid  stanchion  should  not  be 
used  at  all.  The  swing  stanchion,  fastened  at  top  and 
bottom  with  a  few  links  of  chain,  so  as  to  allow  a 
play  of  two  inches  or  thereabouts,  back  and  front,  will 
be  found  satisfactory.  The  swing  stanchion  turning 
upon  a  pivot,  stationary  at  top  and  bottom,  does  good 
work,  but  is  not  as  satisfactory  as  the  former.  This 
is  a  point  upon  which  dairymen  differ  in  opinion, 
and  each  is  left  to  his  choice.  The  use  of  the  swing 
stanchion  lightens  the  task  of  keeping  cows  clean 
better  than  any  other  method. 

Sloping  partitions  reaching  within  a  foot  of  the 
drop  should  separate  the  cows.  This  prevents  in- 
juries to  udders  and  teats  by  cows  stepping  on  each 
other.  The  space  between  the  end  of  the  partition 
and  the  drop  leaves  room  for  the  milking  stool.  In 
front  of  the  cows  a  similar  partition  should  be  placed 
for  each  alternate  cow.  This  permits  each  cow's 
feed  to  be  placed  where  the  next  cow  cannot  steal 
it,  and  each  may  eat  her  own  food  unmolested.  It 
allows  a  watering  device  to  be  placed  between  two 
cows,  so  as  to  be  available  to  each.  A  cast  iron  salt 
box  should  be  bolted  to  each  side  of  the  manger  par- 
titions so  that  each  cow  may  have  her  individual 
salt  dish. 

VENTILATION 

Nothing  in  the  construction  of  the  barn  is  more 
important,  and  at  the  same  time  more  difficult,  to 
secure  than  ventilation.  Much  has  been  written  upon 
this  subject;  a  great  deal  of  what  has  been  said 
has  been  based  upon  erroneous  ideas  of  aerial  cir- 
culation. All  successful  ventilation  must  be  based 


THE    DAIRY    BARN  I2/ 

upon  the  fact  that  warm  air  rises  and  cold  air  falls. 
The  ventilation  in  the  barn  described  was  arranged 
with  this  law  as  its  basis,  and  has  worked  satis- 
factorialy.  The  construction  is  as  follows: 

The  driveway  in  the  second  story  crosses  the  barn 
at  right  angles  with  the  cow  stables,  and  is  entered 
by  a  short  bridge  and  grade  at  the  side  of  the  barn. 
On  each  side  of  this  driveway,  about  three  feet  above 
it,  separating  it  from  the  bays  in  either  end  of  the 
barn,  are  the  "  breast  girts."  Next  to  the  side 
of  the  barn,  under  the  girts,  a  space  is  partitioned 
off,  allowing  an  opening  about  three  feet  square  from 
the  side  of  the  driveway  to  the  stable  beneath. 
There  are  three  of  these  openings.  In  the  fourth 
corner  is  the  stairway,  which  makes  the  fourth 
ventilator.  Slides  are  placed  before  the  three  open- 
ings, closing  them  wholly  or  partly,  as  needed.  The 
stairway  is  closed  by  a  trap  door,  operated  by 
pulley  and  weights.  The  cold  air  being  heavier 
than  the  surrounding  atmosphere,  as  it  comes 
through  the  opening,  drops  to  the  floor.  As  it  is 
breathed  by  the  cattle  and  warmed  by  their  bodies, 
it  courses  toward  the  center  of  the  barn  and  toward 
the  ceiling,  thence  to  the  openings  and  out.  At  each 
of  these  openings  will  be  found  the  two  currents, 
the  cold  air  going  in  and  the  warm  coming  out. 
These  currents  have  been  proved  experimentally 
with  smoke.  The  moisture  formed  by  the  breathing 
in  the  stables  below  often  condenses  in  cold  weather 
in  the  barn  above,  and  forms  considerable  quantities 
of  ice ;  another  evidence  of  the  circulation.  At  the 
"  peak "  of  the  barn  is  a  ventilator  8x6x5  feet. 
Its  sides  are  composed  of  slats,  which  admit  the 


128  PROFITABLE     DAIRYING 

passage  of  air,  but  keep  out  the  storm.  The  fresh 
air  enters  at  the  windward;  the  warm  air  escapes 
to  leeward. 

In  cold  weather  this  system  works  perfectly;  in 
warm,  foggy  weather,  the  circulation  is  sluggish  and 
the  ventilation  not  active  enough.  Then  a  slide 
door  put  in  at  the  end  of  the  driveway  may  be  partly 
opened.  This  makes  the  circulation  sufficient  to 
ventilate  the  barn  perfectly  at  all  times.  Another 
opening  under  breast  girts  in  the  center  of  the  barn 
is  made  for  the  purpose  of  throwing  down  bedding 
material,  but  this  is  never  used  for  ventilating  pur- 
poses. The  other  places  are  also  used  as  hay 
chutes.  In  dropping  from  these  to  the  floor  of  the 
basement,  the  major  part  of  the  dirt  is  shaken  out. 


FEED   ROOM 

In  one  corner  of  the  barn  is  a  room  for  storing 
feed.  It  is  divided  into  bins,  one  of  which  is 
used  for  mixing.  From  it  there  is  a  spout  leading  to 
a  box  in  the  stable  below.  On  the  opposite  side  of 
the  barn  a  space  is  partitioned  off  for  another  feed 
bin  for  use  on  that  side. 


HOSPITAL  STALLS 

Every  barn  should  have  two  or  more  hospital 
stalls.  In  a  herd  of  twenty-five  cows  there  should 
not  be  less  than  three,  each  at  least  9x12  feet. 
They  are  for  use  of  cows  expected  to  come  fresh. 
When  not  needed  for  these  purposes,  they  may  be 


THE    DAIRY    BARN 

used  as  stable  room  for  the  bull.  To  be  used  for 
this  purpose  the  partitions  and  gates  should  be  made 
strong. 

THE    MILK    ROOM 

The  dairy  or  milk  room,  above  all  places  on  the 
farm,  requires  pure  air  and  perfect  ventilation. 
Pure  water  and  perfect  cleanliness  are  also  absolutely 
essential.  When  the  location  of  the  dwelling  house 
is  available  a  part  of  the  cellar  can  be  used.  The 
space  from  the  ground  to  the  top  of  the  cellar 
may  be  used,  and  this  must  be  enough  to  admit 
plenty  of  air  and  light.  Light  should  be  admitted, 
where  possible,  from  the  east,  south,  and  north.  The 
grade  of  the  ground  must  be  such  that  the  cellar  can 
be  entered  by  a  level  passageway,  which  should 
be  from  the  east  or  north  side,  when  possible.  If 
the  slope  does  not  admit  of  a  level  passageway,  the 
cellar  is  not  available  as  a  first-class  dairy  room.  It 
is  not  possible  under  such  conditions  to  secure  the 
ventilation  required  in  the  dairy.  Air  in  a  cellar 
is  cooler  and  heavier  than  the  outside  atmosphere. 
Unless  there  is  an  egress  as  low  as  the  bottom  of 
the  cellar,  the  air  remains  stationary  and  a  de- 
fective dairy  room  is  the  result.  The  dairy  cellar 
should  not  be  less  than  seven  feet  between  joists; 
higher  where  possible.  Windows  should  be  hung 
on  hinges,  so  as  to  enable  their  raising  and  opening 
upward.  The  window  openings  in  summer  should 
be  covered  with  fine  wire  screens.  They  should  be 
closed  after  8  A.M.  to  keep  out  moist  air,  and  be 
opened  again  at  night  to  admit  the  dry  night  air. 


I3O  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

This  may  sound  paradoxical  to  persons  who  have 
never  given  thought  to  the  subject.  Night  air  is 
dryer  than  that  of  midday.  During  the  day  the 
air  is  absorbing  moisture.  At  night,  as  it  cools, 
the  moisture  is  precipitated.  Therefore  the  night  is 
dryer  by  just  this  difference.  It  is  also  cooler  and 
is  for  that  reason  better  for  the  dairy  room  than 
that  9f  the  day. 

Stone  or  cement  floors  should  always  be  used  in 
the  milk  room.  Good  drainage,  so  that  the  floors 
can  be  rinsed  and  cleaned  frequently,  should  be 
provided.  The  drains,  constructed  of  good  tiling 
to  admit  of  thorough  cleansing,  should  be  cleaned, 
at  stated  intervals,  with  concentrated  lye.  If  a 
separate  building  be  used  for  a  milk  room,  and  be 
constructed  of  wood,  the  outer  and  inner  lining 
should  be  separated  by  studding  at  least  five 
inches  wide;  six  is  better.  This  provides  an  air 
chamber  to  act  as  non-conductor  of  heat.  If  this 
space  be  filled  with  sawdust  it  will  aid  in  keeping 
the  room  cool.  The  building  should  be  shaded  by 
trees.  In  four  or  five  years,  Carolina  poplars  will 
grow  large  enough  for  the  purpose.  Maples  planted 
at  the  same  time,  in  a  little  longer  time,  will  furnish 
a  better  shade.  A  good-sized  ventilator  should  be 
built  in  the  top  to  permit  the  warm  air  to  escape 
from  the  space  under  the  roof.  When  the  milk 
room  is  in  the  cellar,  it  should  be  separated  from 
the  root  cellar  by  an  air-tight  partition,  and 
the  doors  between  hung  with  springs  to  keep  them 
closed.  If  an  outdoor  building  is  used  a  re- 
frigerator will  be  necessary  to  store  the  prints. 

A  good   stove   is   an   indispensible   adjunct   to   the 


THE    DAIRY    BARN  13! 

dairy  room.  Building  paper  will  aid  in  keeping  the 
room  cool  in  summer  and  warm  in  winter.  The 
outside  should  be  double-boarded  and  battened  with 
building  paper  between.  The  temperature  must 
never  be  allowed  to  get  to  the  freezing  point.  Plenty 
of  light  is  essential,  but  with  no  more  of  the  sun's 
direct  rays  than  can  be  avoided.  A  steep  roof  is 
better  than  a  flat  one.  The  door  should  open  to 
the  east  or  north,  and  the  building  stand  with  the 
long  way  north  and  south.  This  gives  less  ex- 
posure to  the  sun's  rays, 


CHAPTER  XIX 


THE  SILO  AND  SILAGE 

FOR  several  years  past  the  silo  and  silage  have 
become  matters  of  great  interest  to  the  eastern  stock 
raiser.  There  is  no  one  branch  of  the  business  that 
strikes  deeper  into  the  pocketbook  than  that  of  feed. 
Important  as  is  the  subject  of  breeds  and  breeding, 
it  can  never  overshadow  that  of  feeds  and  feeding. 
Breed  without  feed  would  be  of  no  avail  to  the 
stock  raiser.  Does  silage  pay?  is  the  first  problem 
to  be  solved  by  the  man  who  has  not  already  in- 
formed himself  on  the  subject.  If  it  does  not,  or 
there  be  some  food  that  is  more  readily  available 
and  can  be  used  with  greater  profit,  the  how  of 
raising  silage  and  how  to  save  and  feed  it  are  of  lit- 
tle consequence. 

In  the  early  days  of  the  silo  in  this  country,  Mr. 
Devereaux,  of  Deposit,  N.  Y.,  determined  to  know 
what  it  was  worth  to  him.  He  had  followed  the  tan- 
ning business  until  the  hemlock  bark  in  this  coun- 
try had  been  exhausted,  and  then  turned  to  stock  rais- 
ing. He  constructed  a  silo  and  filled  it  with  a 
good  crop  of  corn,  raised  and  stored  according  to  ap- 
proved methods.  He  went  to  Buffalo  and  purchased 
thirty-six  steers.  These  he  divided  into  two  lots  of 
eighteen  each,  weighed  them,  and  began  feeding. 
To  one  lot  he  gave  hay,  grain,  and  a  half  bushel  of 
turnips  daily;  to  the  other  he  fed  turnips,  silage,  and 

132 


THE    SILO    AND    SILAGE  133 

the  same  amount  of  grain.  He  soon  found  that 
the  steers  eating  silage  did  not  need  the  turnips,  and 
discontinued  their  use  as  to  that  lot.  The  steers 
were  again  carefully  weighed  at  the  close  of  the 
test,  which  lasted  thirty  days.  The  silage-fed  steers 
gained  seventy-seven  and  a  quarter  pounds  a  head ; 
the  hay-fed  gained  a  little  over  thirty-nine  pounds, 
making  a  difference  of  thirty-eight  pounds.  Mr. 
Devereaux  did  not  report  the  amount  of  silage  fed 
to  each,  but  it  probably  did  not  exceed  fifty  pounds 
daily.  The  added  beef  was  worth  five  cents  a 
pound,  or  $1.90  a  head  advantage  in  favor  of  the 
silage-fed  steers.  The  total  cost  of  silage  per  capita 
was  not  over  $1.00. 

All  over  the  country  to-day  farmers  are  using 
silage  as  a  prominent  part  of  the  dairy  feed.  The 
general  opinion  among  observing  feeders  is  that  the 
gain  in  feeding  for  milk  is  fully  as  great  as  when 
feeding  for  beef.  The  cost  of  raising  silage  will 
not  average  over  $1.25  a  ton  when  economically  and 
properly  conducted.  Its  value  as  a  food  cannot  be 
based  upon  the  analysis  as  reported  by  the  chemist. 
A  great  part  of  its  value  consists  in  its  ready  assim- 
ilation. It  is  succulent  and  aids  in  the  digestion  of 
the  hay,  grain,  and  other  foods  forming  the  balance 
of  the  dairy  ration.  Its  value  as  an  auxiliary  to  the 
digestion  of  other  foods  is  fully  as  great  as  its 
direct  food  qualities,  as  shown  by  chemical  analysis. 

The  acidulation  which  occurs  in  the  curing  proc- 
ess aids  digestion.  Until  lately  condensed  milk  fac- 
tories have  refused  milk  from  silage-fed  cows. 
Some  factories  are  now  successfully  using  milk  for 
condensing  purposes  where  silage  of  good  quality 


134  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

has  been  fed  in  moderate  quantity.  Undoubtedly  in 
the  near  future  good  silage  will  come  into  general 
use  for  this  purpose.  It  should  be  fed  under  pre- 
scribed methods  and  not  to  exceed  thirty-five  pounds 
a  day  after  milking.  For  the  production  of  butter,  if 
fed  at  the  above  rate  and  after  milking,  silage  is 
certainly  an  improvement.  Better  butter  can  be 
made  with  its  use  than  without  it.  I  have  found  that 
not  only  was  better  butter  the  result  of  its  use, 
but  also  the  cost  was  greatly  reduced. 

The  flow  of  a  silage-fed  cow,  with  clover  hay  and 
grain  to  make  a  balanced  ration,  is  very  little  be- 
hind that  of  a  cow  on  grass  in  May  and  June. 
When  turned  into  grass  in  the  middle  of  May,  after 
the  pastures  have  a  good  start,  the  flow  was  in- 
creased but  very  little.  The  cow  that  comes  fresh 
late  in  the  fall  or  early  winter,  fed  on  silage,  and 
enough  other  food  to  make  a  balanced  ration,  will 
produce  25  per  cent,  more  milk  and  butter  than  the 
cow  coming  fresh  in  the  spring  with  the  same  care 
and  rations,  for  reasons  given  hereafter.  In  pro- 
ducing this  result,  silage  is  in  favor. 

An  important  item  in  the  raising  of  silage  is 
economy  in  land.  Good  silage  ought  to  yield  at 
the  rate  of  from  ten  to  twelve  tons  to  the  acre.  This 
at  a  relative  food  value  of  two  and  one-half  tons 
to  the  ton  of  hay  is  equivalent  to  about  five  tons 
of  hay  per  acre,  or  a  saving  of  nearly  one-half  the 
land,  in  taxes,  interest,  repairs,  etc.  Yields  of  from 
fifteen  to  twenty  tons  of  silage  to  the  acre  are  not 
uncommon.  Land  which  will  yield  two  tons  of  hay 
to  the  acre  is  likely  to  exceed  twelve  tons  of  silage. 


THE    SILO    AND    SILAGE  135 

The  cost  per  acre  of  producing  silage  is  about  as 
follows : 

Plowing $2.00 

Harrowing 1.50 

Seed  corn 25 

Planting  (with  planter) 50 

Cultivating 3.00 

Harvesting 5.00 


$12.25 

This  will  average  about  $1.00  a  ton,  interest  and 
taxes  not  included.  The  foregoing  allowances  are 
liberal.  The  writer  has  raised  silage,  keeping  strict 
account,  when  it  cost  but  eighty-five  cents  a  ton  in 
the  silo.  One  dollar  a  ton,  however,  is  the  safer 
estimate. 

When  properly  grown  and  harvested,  silage  is 
one  of  the  most  economical  feeds  grown  on  the 
dairy  farm.  It  makes  one  acre  do  the  work  of 
more  than  two,  and  balances  the  competition  between 
the  high-priced  lands  of  the  East  and  the  cheap  but 
fertile  lands  of  the  West.  In  its  production,  land, 
money,  and  labor  are  greatly  economized.  The 
most  exhaustive  work  on  this  topic  is  "Soiling 
Crops  and  the  Silo,"  by  Prof.  Thomas  Shawr,  of 
University  of  Minnesota.  Another  practical  treatise 
is  "Silos,  Ensilage  and  Silage/'  by  Dr.  Manly  Miles. 


CHAPTER  XX 


MISCELLANEOUS  TOPICS 

ADVANCE    IN    METHODS 

The  process  of  creaming  milk  by  the  use  of 
shallow  pans,  as  followed  thirty  years  ago,  lost 
fully  10  per  cent,  of  the  cream.  Fully  10  per  cent, 
more  was  lost  by  the  old  dash  churn,  and  went  into 
the  swill  barrel.  Butter  made  by  old-fashioned 
methods  would  to-day  bring  at  least  10  per  cent,  less 
than  that  made  by  modern  processes.  It  takes 
the  same  labor  to  milk  a  cow  to-day  that  it  did  one 
hundred  years  ago,  but  from  that  point  on  the  results 
of  labor-saving  appliances  are  apparent.  The  labor 
required  to  set  and  skim  the  milk  in  small  pans, 
wash  -and  set  the  pans  for  the  next  milking,  ripen 
the  cream,  churn  it  in  the  old  dash  churn,  work  the 
butter  by  hand,  is  twice  that  required  to  produce 
better  results  by  modern  methods. 

WEEDING    OUT    THE    DAIRY 

One  of  the  most  unpleasant  tasks  of  the  stock 
breeder  is  picking  out  the  unprofitable  cows  and  dis- 
posing of  them.  The  scales  and  the  Babcock  test 
are  an  unfailing  measure  of  merit  and  should  be 
rigidly  applied.  Great  expectations  as  to  some 
well-bred  heifer  are  often  disappointed.  Any  cow 
that  at  five  years  of  age  does  not  prove  at  the  pail 
her  right  to  stay  in  the  dairy  should  be  sold  for  beef 

136 


THE   SILO   AND    SILAGE  137 

for  what  she  will  bring.  No  matter  if  her  dam  was 
of  exceptional  value,  and  the  sire  of  great  worth, 
if  she  has  not  the  individual  merit  she  should  give 
place  to  a  better  cow.  She  must  first  have  a  fair 
chance  to  prove  that  her  performance  is  not  the 
result  of  bad  feeding  or  some  other  cause  capable  of 
being  remedied.  The  fault  must  be  proved  to  be  hers 
and  not  that  of  her  environment.  By  always  taking 
care  to  select  sires  of  the  best  quality,  and  to  get 
calves  from  the  best  mothers,  this  method  will  in  a 
few  years  secure  a  herd  in  which  individual  prefer- 
ences will  be  few. 


DEHORNING 

Horns  are  the  weapons  of  offense  and  defense  by 
which  in  the  wild  state  cattle  protected  themselves. 
As  a  domestic  animal,  the  cow  has  no  further  use  for 
them.  The  condition  of  fright  and  fear  common 
among  herds  where  horns  are  worn  materially  affects 
the  average  flow  of  milk.  Careful  observation  has 
shown  that  the  dehorned  cow  is  not  affected  by  the 
operation  for  more  than  two  or  three  days,  and  then 
not  to  a  great  extent.  The  time  to  dehorn  a  heifer 
is  while  she  is  a  calf  less  than  a  week  old.  As  soon 
as  the  knob  begins  to  appear,  the  hair  is  cut  close 
over  it  about  the  size  of  a  nickel.  Caustic  potash, 
in  the  stick  form,  is  then  moistened  and  rubbed  on 
until  the  blood  shows  through  the  skin.  After  a 
few  minutes  the  operation  is  repeated  and  the  work 
is  done.  Allowing  the  potash  to  get  soft  and  then 
pasting  it  on  is  unnecessary  cruelty. 


138  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

WASTE    IN    MILKING 

The  hired  man  is  not  likely  to  stop  to  compute 
the  loss  incurred  by  leaving  a  half-pint  in  the  udder 
at  each  milking.  The  last  half-pint  is  three  times 
as  rich  in  butter  fat  as  the  average  of  the  whole 
milking.  Figuring  on  this  basis,  there  would  be  a 
loss  equivalent  to  900  pounds  of  milk  in  300  days; 
at  one  dollar  per  hundred,  this  means  a  loss  of  $9 
a  year  per  cow.  In  a  herd  of  fifteen  cows,  this  would 
mean  a  loss  of  $135 — nearly  the  wages  of  the  man. 
But  the  loss  of  milk  and  butter  fat  is  not  the  only 
one.  Under  such  treatment  the  flow  of  the  cow  will 
decrease.  The  man  who  has  charge  of  the  dairy 
should  see  to  it  that  every  milker  milks  his  cows 
clean.  It  is  from  these  apparently  small  matters 
that  the  gain  or  loss  in  a  dairy  comes. 


FEEDING   THE    DAIRY   COW 

Enough  has  been  said  on  cow  feeding  to  give  a 
general  idea  of  this  subject.  The  cow  cannot  be  ex- 
pected to  furnish  all  the  brains  needed  to  run  this 
branch  of  the  dairy.  No  more  hay  or  straw  should 
be  fed  than  the  cow  will  eat  at  a  meal.  When  she 
stops  eating,  her  manger  must  be  cleaned  out  and 
allowed  to  remain  clean  until  the  next  time  for  feed- 
ing. She  will  soon  adapt  herself  to  this  order  of 
things,  and  when  done  eating  will  lie  down.  She 
will  not  get  up  every  time  the  attendant  comes  into 
the  stable  as  if  she  expected  another  feeding.  She 
is  a  creature  of  habit.  Upon  the  attendant  depends 
the  regularity  of  those  habits.  The  more  regular  they 
are  the  better  work  she  will  do  in  the  dairy. 


THE    SILO   AND    SILAGE  139 

KICKING    COWS 

There  is  no  excuse  for  having  a  kicking  cow 
in  the  herd.  The  kicking  cow  is  invariably  made 
so  by  her  attendant.  If  a  cow  is  handled  before 
she  comes  in,  so  as  to  become  familiar  with  her  at- 
tendant, and  has  been  kindly  treated,  there  will  be 
no  trouble.  If  a  cow  or  heifer  gets  the  habit  of 
kicking,  or  seems  in  the  way  of  forming  the  habit, 
one  of  the  following  remedies  is  suggested:  A 
strap  or  rope  buckled  tightly  around  the  body  just 
in  front  of  the  udder  and  the  hips.  This  usually 
effects  a  cure.  Another  method  which  has  been 
successfully  tried  is  to  use  a  stick  about  eighteen 
or  twenty  inches  long,  crooked  and  hollowed  so  as 
to  fit  the  leg  at  the  hock  joint.  This  is  fastened  by 
a  strap  at  the  top,  another  just  above  the  hock,  and 
a  third  several  inches  below  it,  the  straps  being 
made  long  enough  to  go  around  the  leg  and  some 
to  spare,  and  with  the  tongue  holes  close  together. 
The  middle  strap  is  buckled  first  and  then  the 
upper  and  then  the  lower  one.  After  this  is  put 
on  the  cow  will  try  to  kick,  but  she  will  soon  dis- 
cover its  impossibility.  After  a  few  trials  there 
will  be  little  difficulty,  and  it  usually  is  but  a  short 
time  before  the  cow  will  stand  without  the  con- 
trivance. In  using  this  appliance,  the  dairyman  must 
be  patient  with  the  cow.  She  must  be  made  to 
know  that  she  is  not  to  be  hurt,  except  as  she  hurts 
herself.  The  stool  described  elsewhere  should  be 
used,  and  the  pail  protected  by  placing  the  knee 
against  the  cow's  leg.  When  she  tries  to  kick 
she  cannot  get  her  leg  forward  nor  into  the  pail. 


I4O  PROFITABLE     DAIRYING 

When  kicking  becomes  chronic,  so  that  the  cow  will 
yield  to  neither  of  the  above  treatments,  she  may  as 
well  be  considered  as  a  hard  case  and  disposed  of. 

WARM  WATER  FOR  COWS 

Having  water  before  each  cow  in  the  stable  is 
desirable.  In  most  places  it  is  practicable.  The 
gain  in  milk  will  pay  heavy  interest  on  the  money 
invested  in  the  cost  of  the  appliance.  When  this  is 
not  practicable,  it  will  pay  in  a  large  dairy  to  have 
a  small  boiler  from  which  steam  pipes  pass  into 
the  trough  to  raise  the  temperature. 

In  the  celebrated  dairy  districts  in  the  town  of 
Bovina,  Delaware  County,  N.  Y.,  a  number  of  these 
appliances  are  used.  The  dairymen  of  that  section 
find  that  warming  the  drinking  water  of  the  cows 
materially  increases  the  flow  of  milk.  A  useful 
appliance  where  water  is  kept  always  before  the 
cows  is  a  dish  covered  by  a  board  that  drops  over 
the  bucket.  The  cow  raises  it  when  she  desires  to 
drink.  When  the  water  is  at  the  proper  temperature 
the  cows  drink  many  times  a  day  and  but  a  small 
quantity  at  a  time.  No  cow  can  both  digest  her 
food  to  warm  ice  water  and  at  the  same  time 
convert  it  into  milk  and  butter  fat. 

COST    OF    PRODUCING   MILK 

If  one  thousand  farmers  were  asked  what  it  costs 
to  produce  a  hundredweight  of  milk  or  a  pound  of 
butter,  it  is  doubtful  if  twenty  could  give  an  in- 
telligent reply.  The  cost  of  butter  depends  upon 
so  many  conditions  that  each  case  must  needs  be 
answered  by  itself.  In  a  well-kept  herd  of  specially 


THE    SILO   AND    SILAGE  14! 

bred  animals,  adapted  to  the  production  of  milk  and 
butter,  under  favorable  conditions,  the  cost  is  about 
as  follows : 

FEED  COST  PER  ANNUM   PER  COW 

4  tons  silage  @  $1.00 $4.00 

1,500  pounds  hay  @  $8.00 6.00 

I  ton  ground  feed   • 20.00 

Pasturage      6.00 

1,200  pounds  straw 3.00 


$39-00 
Labor,  cost,  including  butter  making 10.00 


Total    expense      $49.00 

Under  the  conditions  enumerated,  a  per  capita 
product  of  6,000  pounds  of  milk,  or  300  pounds  of 
butter,  could  reasonly  be  expected.  This  would 
make  the  cost  of  producing  milk  81.6  cents  a 
hundredweight;  butter,  161-3  cents  a  pound.  If 
the  cow  be  credited  with  skim-milk  at  10  cents  per  100 
pounds,  it  would  reduce  the  cost  of  butter  about  2 
cents  a  pound. 

The  cost  in  the  average  dairy  at  the  present  time, 
throughout  the  country,  is  about  as  follows: 

Hay,   2   tons      • $16.00 

Pasturage 6.00 

Grain,  600  pounds 6.00 

Labor   cost     10.00 


Total $38.00 

Average  milk  production 3-5OO  pounds 

Average  butter  production      150  pounds 

Cost  per  hundredweight  milk $1.08 

Cost  per  pound  butter 24 

Crediting    the    skim-milk    reduces    butter    cost     to 
about  22  cents. 

There   is    one   important   item   in   this    calculation 


142  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

of  which  the  feeder  must  not  lose  sight.  The  farmer 
has  sold  his  hay  to  his  cow  at  $8.00  a  ton,  his  pas- 
turage at  $6.00,  his  grain  at  $20.00  a  ton.  Into  this 
hay  and  grain  has  entered  his  labor  precisely  the 
same  as  if  the  product  had  been  sold  off  the  farm 
for  cash.  He  must  not,  therefore,  charge  as  labor 
account  against  the  cow  any  of  the  time  expended 
in  producing  his  feeds.  Incidental  expenses,  such 
as  taxes,  interest  account,  repairs,  etc.,  should  be 
taken  care  of  in  the  by-products — calves  sold, 
manure  saved,  etc.  The  manure  alone  is  worth 
from  $12  to  $15  a  year  per  cow.  It  is  the  fault 
of  the  owner  if  this  fertilizer  value  is  not  saved. 

SKIM.MILK 

The  value  of  skimmed  milk  depends  largely  upon 
the  uses  to  which  it  is  put.  If  there  are  facilities 
for  producing  steam  to  cut  hay  and  straw  and  grind 
feed,  the  skimmed  milk  can  be  sprayed  into  the 
feed.  When  so  fed,  it  takes  the  place  of  an  amount 
of  grain  which  makes  its  feed  value  about  25  cents 
a  hundredweight.  This  statement  is  made  on  the 
authority  of  John  T.  McDonald,  of  New  York,  one 
of  the  most  successful  dairymen  in  that  State.  He 
conducts  his  dairy  upon  business  principles  and  is 
a  close  and  careful  observer.  For  feeding  calves 
and  hogs  for  the  market,  skimmed  milk  is  cheap  at 
10  cents  a  hundredweight. 

The  following  is  a  comparison  of  the  feed  values 
of  buckwheat  middlings  with  skimmed  milk: 

Protein  Carbohydrates 
per  cent.        per  cent. 

Buckwheat  middlings 23.7  50.5 

Skimmed  milk 3.5  5.9 


CHAPTER  XXI 

NECESSARY  APPLIANCES 
BUTTER  WORKER 

ONE  of  the  important  appliances  of  the  dairy  is 
a  butter  worker.  Its  capacity  should  be  greater  than 
the  estimated  use.  There  are  many  varieties,  roller, 


FIG.  23 — THE  SKINNER  BUTTER  WORKER 

corrugated,  lever,  etc.  The  best  is  the  corrugated 
roller  worker  that  passes  back  and  forth  over  the 
butter.  The  corrugations  should  be  rounded  instead 
of  angular.  Rounded  corrugations  squeeze  the  but- 
ter, forcing  out  the  brine,  and  work  more  by  press- 

143 


144 


PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 


ing  than  by  cutting  and  sliding.  (Fig.  23.)  One 
machine  reverses  action  by  slipping  a  cog-wheel. 
It  rolls  the  butter  after  working  it.  (Fig.  24.)  The 
writer  has  used  one  of  these  machines  for  the  last 
ten  years,  and  considers  it  the  best  he  has  ever 
used.  The  roller  is  stationary,  the  table  sliding 


FIG.  24 — REVERSIBLE  BUTTER  WORKER 


back  and  forth  underneath  it,  without  changing  the 
direction  or  reversing  the  handle.  Any  form  of 
worker  that  slides  or  slips  over  the  butter  greatly 
injures  the  grain.  The  hand  should  not  be  al- 
lowed to  touch  the  butter  at  any  time.  The  ladle 
(Fig.  25)  should  never  slide  over  the  butter  to 
smooth  it  for  the  reason  mentioned.  A  butter 
bowl  is  not  needed.  A  straight-edged  paddle  (Fig. 


NECESSARY  APPLIANCES  145 


FIG.   26 
FIG.  25 — LADLE  STRAIGHT  PADDLE 

26)  is  the  best  form  of  wood  instrument  with  which 
to  handle  the  butter. 

THERMOMETER 

Of  all  the  instruments  and  appliances  which  have 
a  place  in  the  dairy,  few  are  more  important  than 
the  thermometer.  Nothing  is  more  unreliable  as  a 
test  of  temperature  than  the  hand  or  finger.  Tempera- 
ture must  be  registered  to  a  nicety  in  the  dairy. 

A  large  proportion  of  the  thermometers  for  sale 
in  the  markets  are  faulty.  A  dozen  taken  at  a  time 
and  compared  with  a  tested  thermometer  may  show 
three-fourths  of  them  to  be  incorrect.  Those  cost- 
ing one,  two,  or  even  three  dollars  may  be  as  much 
out  of  the  way  as  the  cheaper  ones.  Thermometers 
should  always  be  purchased  from  some  reliable 
dealer  who  can  vouch  for  their  accuracy.  In  most 
counties  in  the  State  there  are  weather  stations  sup- 
plied by  the  government  with  accurate  thermometers 
with  which  purchased  thermometers  may  be  tested. 


146 


PROFITABLE      DAIRYI NG 


A   correct   one   may  be  kept   as   a  standard   to   test 

others  by.  Each  farm 
should  have  three  or  four. 
They  are  inexpensive.  One 
will  be  needed  in  the  cow 
stable,  one  in  the  living 
rooms,  one  out  of  doors, 
and  one  or  two  in  the  dairy. 
Leading  styles  of  thermom- 
eters are  seen  in  Figs.  27 
and  28. 

It  is  not  sufficient  merely 
to  compare  a  thermometer 
with  one  known  to  be  cor- 
rect. The  test  should  be 
made  as  follows :  Place 
the  thermometer  in  ice  wa- 
ter. Gradually  raise  the 
temperature  to  100°.  Note 
carefully  as  they  pass  from 
40°  to  70°  to  see  if  they  are 
all  alike ;  if  not,  note  the 
variation  and  mark  it  on 
the  thermometer  so  that  it 
cannot  be  forgotten.  In 
raising  cream  by  the  grav- 
ity process  the  temperature 
must  be  below  50°.  It  is 
best,  if  possible,  to  keep  it 
under  45°.  This  tempera- 
ture of  the  barn,  in  cold 
weather,  should  be  main- 


FIG.   27  FIG.   28 

FIG,  27 — DAIRY  THERMOMETER 
FIG.    28 — FLOATING    GLASS 
THERMOMETER 


tained  as  near  45°  as  possible. 


NECESSARY   APPLIANCES  147 

THE  ICE   HOUSE 

The  ice  house  is  another  important  adjunct  to  the 
dairy.  The  manner  of  erecting  ice  houses  is  so 
generally  understood  that  little  need  be  said  about 
it.  The  bottom  should  be  constructed  of  poles  and 
straw,  to  permit  drainage.  Studding  not  less  than 
2  x  10  inches  should  separate  the  lining  boards 
from  the  outside  sheeting.  This  space  should  be 
filled  with  dry  tan  bark  or  sawdust.  Ice  houses 
made  in  this  way  will  need  but  a  few  inches  of  saw- 
dust around  the  ice.  The  ice  house  should  be 
banked  with  sawdust  and  the  banking  covered  with 
boards.  It  is  important  that  this  banking  be  kept 
dry,  for  dry  sawdust  is  a  more  perfect  non-conductor 
than  wet. 

Before  taking  the  ice  to  the  dairy  room,  every 
particle  of  sawdust  must  be  washed  off.  Moist  saw- 
dust produces  an  odor  injurious  to  the  milk 
and  is  likely  to  clog  drains.  Ice  should  never  be 
allowed  to  come  in  contact  with  milk,  cream,  or 
butter.  If  it  touches  either  the  effect  will  be  nearly 
the  same  as  that  of  boiling  water.  It  will  make 
the  butter  white  and  streaked.  The  cooling  effect 
of  the  ice  must  be  conveyed  indirectly.  The  water 
in  which  the  ice  is  put  should  be  changed  every  two 
or  three  days. 

CARE    OF    DAIRY    TOOLS 

Carelessness  with  tools  will  invariably  work  ruin 
in  the  dairy  accounts.  Cleanliness  is  imperative  in 
the  dairy.  There  is  nothing  more  susceptible  to  odors 
and  flavors  from  surrounding  objects  than  milk, 


148  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

cream,  and  butter.  Nothing  must  be  permitted  in 
the  dairy  that  is  not  sweet  and  clean.  Tinware 
should  have  all  seams  rilled  smooth  with  solder  to 
prevent  the  accumulation  of  dirt.  Utensils  should 
not  be  allowed  to  become  rusted;  a  rusted  surface 
is  difficult  to  keep  clean. 

Tin  vessels  should  be  carefully  cleansed  with  warm 
water,  and  then  scalded.  Warm  water  will  melt  the 
butter  fat.  The  hot  water  destroys  all  bacteria. 
Covers  must  be  removed  from  cream  pails,  and  all 
other  receptacles,  when  not  in  use.  Coats,  overalls, 
vests,  etc.,  wrorn  about  the  barn  should  not  be  worn 
in  the  dairy.  Whitewash,  water,  and  paint  should  be 
freely  used  in  the  dairy  room.  The  churn  should  be 
frequently  inspected  to  see  that  no  dirt  or  grease 
is  accumulating  in  it.  The  scrubbing  brush  should 
be  freely  used.  The  nose  will  be  likely  to  dis- 
cover anything  wrong  with  the  churn,  but  the 
eyes  must  assist.  The  author  once  discovered  that 
his  churn  wras  not  making  good  butter.  After  a 
long  hunt  it  was  found  that  the  attendant  had 
not  kept  the  vent  hole  in  the  cover  clean.  The  butter 
worker  needs  to  be  carefully  looked  after.  It 
should  be  taken  apart  frequently  and  every  part 
cleansed.  The  top  of  the  table  can  be  easily  scrubbed 
and  cleansed,  but  the  whole  machine  needs  looking 
after.  In  cleansing  dairy  utensils,  scalding  water 
should  never  be  used.  Boiling  water  will  cook  the 
milk  or  cream  and  cause  it  to  adhere  tenaciously  to 
the  sides  and  bottom  of  the  vessel.  On  tin  dishes 
it  will  have  to  wear  off  before  it  can  be  gotten  rid 
of.  Scalding  water  is  to  be  used  only  after  the 
vessel  has  been  cleansed;  prior  to  that  only  warm 


NECESSARY  APPLIANCES 


149 


water  is  to  be  applied.  When  drying  dairy  utensils 
care  should  be  taken  to  place  them  in  such  a  position 
as  to  allow  free  circulation  of  the  air.  Wooden 
dishes  should  not  be  exposed  to  the  sun  enough  to 
cause  them  to  check.  They  should  be  kept  free  from 
contact  with  sour  milk  or  cream. 

MILKING  STOOLS 

Plenty  of  good  milking-stools  are  essential  in  the 
stable.  If  the  attendant  is  not  comfortable  while 
milking,  the  cow  will  find  it  out  from  the  irritable- 


FIG.    29 — PUK'S    MILKING-STOOL 

ness  and  ill-temper  likely  to  be  displayed.  There 
are  many  forms  of  stools  of  merit.  The  ones  used 
in  the  author's  stables  are  made  as  follows,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  29 :  The  entire  length  is  eighteen  inches ; 
seat,  eight  inches  long ;  front,  seven  inches  high ; 
rear,  eleven  inches.  This  makes  the  pail  board  pitch 
slightly  forward.  The  front  of  the  seat  over  the 
pail  board  is  three  inches  and  the  rear  two  and  one- 
half  inches.  This  makes  the  seat  level.  Stools  should 
be  made  of  seasoned  hardwood,  although  pine  or 
basswood  one  and  one-quarter  inches  thick  will  do. 


I5O  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

A  strip  three  inches  wide  and  one  or  more  inches 
thick  should  be  firmly  nailed  across  the  front  end 
of  the  stool  to  hold  the  legs.  The  piece  under  the 
front  of  the  seat  should  not  be  less  than  two  inches 
thick,  as  it  strengthens  the  stool  and  gives  it  firmness. 
A  piece  should  be  nailed  across  the  front  of  the  milk- 
ing board  to  prevent  the  pail  slipping  off.  The  whole 
should  be  made  of  planed  lumber  and  painted.  It  is 
then  much  easier  to  keep  it  clean,  and  it  becomes  a 
creditable  adjunct  to  a  well-kept  stable. 

A  few  extra  stools  should  be  provided  with  the 
pail  board  an  inch  or  two  lower  than  the  regular 
stools.  These  are  useful  in  milking  short-legged 
cows.  When  the  attendant  is  seated  on  one  of  these 
stools,  with  his  knee  against  the  cow's  leg,  it  is  diffi- 
cult for  her  to  get  her  foot  into  the  pail.  These 
stools  bring  the  pail  close  to  the  udder  in  a  place 
convenient  for  milking.  They  save  much  spattering 
and  thus  conduce  toward  cleanliness.  Stools  must 
never  become  dirty.  They  should  have  a  regular 
place  in  the  stable,  and  the  milkers  must  be  made 
to  keep  them  there.  If  a  stool  is  found  to  be 
giving  out,  it  should  be  promptly  repaired  or  a  new 
one  put  in  its  place.  Milkers  should  never  be  al- 
lowed to  break  up  stools  by  careless  use. 

THE  BABCOCK  TEST 

The  Babcock  test  is  an  instrument  that  no  dairy- 
man can  afford  to  be  without.  In  former  times 
the  only  way  by  which  a  farmer  could  ascertain  the 
value  of  an  individual  cow  was  to  raise*  and  churn 
her  cream  separately.  This  was  inconvenient  and 
burdensome.  The  average  farmer  preferred  to  take 


FIG.    30 — THE   ORIGINAL    BABCOCK    MILK    TEST 


152  PROFITABLE    DAIRYING 

his  chances  rather  than  take  the  trouble  to  make 
this  test.  It  was  formerly  supposed  that  a  cow's 
value  was  measured  by  the  amount  of  cream  she 
produced.  The  Babcock  test  reveals  the  fact  that 
cream  from  different  cows  differs  as  widely  in 
the  amount  of  butter  fat  that  it  contains  as  does 
the  milk.  After  the  advent  of  the  Babcock  test 
it  was  not  uncommon  to  find  that  what  had  been 
supposed  to  be  the  best  butter  producer  in  the  herd 
was  in  reality  an  unprofitable  cow,  and  the  little 
cow,  supposed  to  be  of  little  value,  was  producing 
more  butter  fat  than  the  others. 

There  is  really  no  other  safe  guide  in  learning  the 
value  of  a  dairy  cow  than  the  Babcock  test.  The 
matter  of  breeding  merely  increases  the  chances  of 
getting  a  profitable  cow.  Poor  animals  will  be  found 
in  the  best  herds.  They  may  be  rare,  but  the 
owner  nevertheless  needs  a  ready  means  of  ascertain- 
ing their  value.  It  is  equally  important  that  the  dairy- 
man should  have  a  means  of  testing  the  results  of 
his  own  efforts.  He  needs  must  know  whether 
the  butter  fat  delivered  by  the  cow  into  the  milk 
pail  is  conserved  by  him  or  lost  in  the  process  of 
butter  manufacture.  He  must  be  able  to  trace  the 
waste  if  he  finds  it.  The  Babcock  test  is  the  un- 
failing solver  of  all  these  questions.  The  original 
Babcock  milk  tester  is  seen  in  Fig.  30. 

The  Babcock  test  showed  the  author  that  his  old- 
fashioned  dash  churn  was  wasting  one  pound  of 
butter  in  ten.  With  it,  his  father  and  grandfather, 
without  suspecting  the  fact,  lost  enough  butter  to 
pay  for  their  farm.  The  appliances  used  in  the 
Babcock  test  are  now  so  cheap  that  every  farmer 


NECESSARY   APPLIANCES  153 

can  afford  to  have  one.  Neighbors  having  small 
dairies  can  get  along  very  well  with  one  instrument 
to  two  or  three  dairies.  Where  a  man  has  ten  or 
more  cows  it  is  better  to  have  one  of  his  own.  Full 
directions  come  with  each  machine.  Nothing  needs 
to  be  said  as  to  its  operation.  It  is  best  to  get  some 
friend  familiar  with  its  use  to  come  and  operate  it 
the  first  time.  A  test  from  a  single  milking  is  not 
sufficient.  It  should  be  made  from  a  mixture  of 
equal  parts  of  not  less  than  four  milkings.  In 
reading  the  test,  the  bottle  should  be  held  level  with 
the  eye,  and  the  reading  made  accurately.  This  will 
be  quickly  learned.  It  should  be  read  as  soon  as 
possible  after  the  last  whirling  ceases.  The  fluid 
contracts  as  it  cools  and  soon  gets  so  that  it  cannot 
be  read  accurately. 

When  pouring  in  the  acid,  the  bottle  should  be 
held  in  a  slanting  position,  so  that  the  acid  will  flow 
down  the  side  of  the  bottle,  which  should  be  slowly 
turned  as  it  is  filled.  This  prevents  too  much  of  the 
acid  coming  in  contact  with  a  small  portion  of  the 
milk  and  burning  it.  The  bottle  must  be  held 
firmly,  so  that  it  will  not  slip.  The  acid  must  be 
thoroughly  mixed  with  the  milk  by  rotating  the 
bottle.  When  well  mixed  the  liquid  will  have  a 
bright,  wine-colored  appearance.  The  test  must  be 
made  in  a  warm  room,  and  some  one  should  be  pres- 
ent to  take  the  record  of  the  readings.  From  the 
results  the  number  of  pounds  of  butter  fat  the  cow 
is  producing  daily  can  be  readily  computed.  The 
butter  production  is  calculated  by  adding  one-sixth. 
If  the  result  does  not  show  what  is  expected  or 
desired,  the  cow  should  be  watched,  and,  if  no  im- 


154  PROFITABLE      DAIRYING 

provement  be  made,  disposed  of.  Putting  butter 
fat  into  milk  is  an  individual  power  of  the  cow.  A 
3  per  cent,  producer  cannot  be  made  into  one 
whose  test  shows  5  per  cent.  The  quantity  of  her 
flow  may  be  increased,  but  the  quality  of  the  milk  is 
fixed  by  the  cow  herself.  The  Babcock  test  will 
not  lie. 

An  unknown  cow  should  never  be  bought  without 
testing  her  with  the  Babcock  test.  If  the  owner  of 
the  cow  has  never  used  one  he  should  be  asked  for 
a  sample  of  the  milk  to  test.  Quantity  of  flow 
argues  but  little  in  the  butter-producing  dairy.  Fif- 
teen pounds  of  6  per  cent,  milk  is  worth  as  much  as 
thirty  pounds  of  3  per  cent.,  and,  as  a  rule,  the 
former  can  be  bought  at  a  much  smaller  price  than 
the  latter.  With  the  exception  of  the  slight  credit 
to  be  given  for  the  skim  milk,  the  production  of  the 
former,  when  it  reaches  the  churn,  is  worth  as  much 
as  that  of  the  latter  cow.  It  is  better  to  have  one 
three  hundred  pound  cow  than  three  one  hundred  and 
fifty  pound  cows.  There  are  two  extra  cows  to  keep, 
and  the  big  hole  they  make  in  the  hay-mow  and  grain 
bin  is  not  compensated  by  additional  one  hundred  and 
fifty  pounds  of  butter.  The  greatest  profit  ever  made 
from  the  one  hundred  and  fifty  pound  cow  is  when 
she  is  sold  and  the  proceeds  invested  in  a  three 
hundred  pound  cow.  All  of  this  is  demonstrated 
by  the  Babcock  test. 

The  acid  bottle  should  have  a  glass  stopper.  A 
graduate  glass  is  needed  in  taking  the  acid  from  the 
large  bottle.  It  should  be  used  to  pour  the  acid 
into  the  acid  measure.  It  is  better  to  have  another 
pint  bottle  from  which  to  pour  into  the  graduate. 


NECESSARY   APPLIANCES  155 

Too  much  care  cannot  be  exercised  in  handling  the 
acid.  For  filling  the  test  bottles,  a  pint  cup  with  a 
spout  at  the  bottom  and  rubber  tube  attached  about 
eighteen  inches  in  length  should  be  used.  By  pinch- 
ing the  lower  end  of  the  tube  when  filling  the  bottles 
the  amount  of  water  introduced  can  be  controlled 
with  great  accuracy.  The  test  bottles  must  be  cleaned 
with  warm  water  immediately  after  using.  In  pour- 
ing out  the  acid  and  milk,  thorough  shaking  should 
be  given  to  remove  the  sediment  at  the  bottom  of  the 
bottle.  The  aicid  will  cleanse  and  remove  this  better 
than  water.  Both  the  milk  and  the  acid  must  be  care- 
fully measured.  Negligence  about  this  will  yield  un- 
reliable results. 


CHAPTER  XXII 


GENERAL  HINTS 

BUTTER  PRINTS 

IN  the  matter  of  butter  prints,  one  thing  is  im- 
portant to  retain  customers.  Every  print  must  be 
full  weight.  An  accurate  and  sensitive  scale  is 
essential.  The  butter  print  should  be  set  so  that  the 
prints  will  be  slightly  over  weight  when  made.  They 
will  lighten  a  trifle  by  evaporation.  Allowance 
should  be  made  for  this.  It  is  better  to  have  the 
print  half  an  ounce  over  weight  than  a  quarter 
ounce  short;  a  half  ounce  over  weight  will  make  the 
print  safe.  A  good  reputation  is  worth  more  than  a 
fraction  of  an  ounce. 

Only  good  papers  should  be  used  for  wrappers. 
It  is  a  good  idea  to  have  the  name  of  the  dairy  and 
the  warranty  printed  on  the  wrapper.  Where  the 
market  demands  butter  salted  to  different  degrees  the 
amount  of  salt  can  be  indicated  by  some  mark  on 
the  wrapper,  or  by  a  slip  attached  to  it.  By  this  the 
grocer  will  be  able  to  exactly  suit  his  customers,  and 
those  customers  once  secured  will  take  the  same 
brand  of  butter  every  time  they  can  get  it.  It  pays  to 
build  up  a  special  demand  market  wherever  possible. 
Once  made,  the  dairyman  is  sure  of  it  as  long  as  the 
quality  of  the  butter  is  maintained. 

In  summer  it  pays  to  use  a  wood  or  wood  pulp 
case  in  which  to  put  the  prints.  They  cost  but  a 

156 


GENERAL    HINTS 


157 


trifle,  and  are  an  evidence  of  painstaking  that  in  the 
end  brings  customers,  and  the  dealer  will  appreciate 
these  cases  highly.  Where  delivery  is  made  to  spe- 


FIG.  31 — VENEER  WRAPPER  BOX,  OPEN 

cial  customers,  it  is  especially  desirable  to  use  these 
cases  and  in  many  places  is  good  for  an  added  cent 
a  pound  on  the  price.  Maple  is  the  best  wood  for 
the  purpose.  The  covers  are  cheap  when  bought  by 


FIG.   32 — VENEER  WRAPPER  BOX,   CLOSED 

the  thousand  and  will  always  add  to  the  selling  price 
of  the  butter.  A  veneer  wrapper  open  is  seen  in  Fig. 
31;  closed  in  Fig.  32;  the  improved  print  carrier  in 
Fig.  33,  and  the  Eureka  Butter  Printer  in  Fig.  34. 


158 


PROFITABLE    DAIRYING 

MILK  HABIT 


Occasionally  cows  will  be  found  which  show  a  dis- 
position to  be  continuous  milkers.  As  a  rule  it  is 
better  to  have  a  cow  go  dry  from  four  to  six  weeks, 
but  if,  after  reasonable  effort  to  dry  her  off,  she  de- 
clines to  go  dry,  she  should  be  humored.  It  is  dan- 


FIG.    33 IMPROVED    PRINT    BUTTER    CARRIER 

gerous  not  to  do  so.  If  in  milk  within  three  weeks 
of  calving,  no  attempt  should  be  made  to  dry  her  off. 
Heifers  should  be  induced  to  continue  their  flow  to 
within  four  weeks  of  calving  if  possible.  If  allowed 
to  go  dry  too  long,  they  form  a  habit  hard  to  cure. 
An  eye  should  always  be  kept  open  for  well  sired 
heifer  calves  from  unusually  fine  milking  cows.  When 
there  are  not  enough  in  a  herd,  the  dairyman  should 
look  out  for  some  in  a  neighbor's  herd.  The  author 
knew  one  cross-bred  Ayrshire-Durham  cow  that  was 


GENERAL    HINTS 


159 


a  4OO-pound  butter  producer,  and  which  always  had 
heifer  calves.  She  did  excellent  work  in  stocking 
two  herds  with  fine  cows.  Her  daughters,  grand- 
daughters, etc.,  were  strongly  marked  after  her.  A 


FIG.    34 — IMPROVED   BUTTER    PRINTER 

superior  cow  is  a  thing  to  be  desired  in  the  dairy, 
even  though  she  cannot  boast  of  registry.  Quarts  of 
milk  and  pounds  of  butter  are  very  acceptable  substi- 
tutes for  a  registry  certificate. 

SELLING   COWS 

No  heifer  or  cow  should  be  offered  for  sale  for 
other  than  she  is.  If  a  registered  herd  be  kept  and 
the  owner  have  doubts  about  the  cow  proving  satis- 
factory to  the  purchaser  for  the  purpose  he  desires 
her,  no  price  should  be  fixed  upon  'her  and  she  should 


l6o  PROFITABLE    DAIRYING 

not  be  sold.  If  she  be  a  fine  looking  cow,  he  may 
be  tempted  to  take  her  and  run  the  risk,  but  the 
seller  cannot  afford  to  allow  a  cow  to  go  from  his 
stock  that  does  not  fairly  represent  it.  It  is  better 
to  sell  a  cow  for  beef  for  less  than  she  is  worth  than 
to  sell  her  as  a  milk  and  butter  cow  for  more  than 
she  is  worth.  It  is  a  high  compliment  to  a  breeder 
to  have  a  customer  come  to  him  and  ask  him  to 
select  for  him  from  the  herd  a  cow  that  is  to  fill  a 
prescribed  demand.  No  breeder  can  afford  to  betray 
such  confidence. 

A  heifer  that  should  go  to  the  shambles  should  be 
killed  at  home  so  that  the  butcher  cannot  afterward 
take  advantage  of  the  reputation  of  the  herd  and  sell 
her  for  milk  prices.  The  reputation  of  the  herd  may 
suffer  unless  this  be  done.  The  breeder  who  sells 
from  his  herd  as  milk  cows  animals  he  has  reason 
to  believe  will  not  do  justice  to  his  reputation  as  a 
breeder  is  selling  that  which  money  cannot  buy  back 
— his  reputation. 

MILK   PAILS 

Milk  pails  should  be  made  to  order,  and  all  should 
be  of  the  same  weight,  to  make  the  weighing  of  milk 
convenient.  One  setting  of  the  scales  will  then  do 
for  all  the  pails.  Use  nothing  but  strong,  heavy  tin 
for  this  purpose.  Galvanized  iron  should  not  be  used 
in  any  vessel  intended  as  a  receptacle  for  milk.  It 
is  rough  and  difficult,  almost  impossible  to  keep  clean. 

THE    SCRAP    BOOK 

Every  farmer,  whether  a  stock  raiser  or  not,  should 
have  a  scrap  box  and  a  scrap  book.  Whenever  in 


GENERAL   HINTS  l6l 

reading  he  finds  an  idea  that  is  worth  saving  for 
future  use,  it  should  be  cut  out  and  put  in  the  scrap 
box.  When  a  quantity  has  accumulated  they  may  be 
pasted  in  the  scrap  book.  This  book  should  be  well 
bound.  An  old  cloth-bound  account  book,  with  about 
two-thirds  of  the  leaves  cut  out,  is  good  for  the  pur- 
pose. A  carefully  prepared  index  by  topics  is  indis- 
pensable. In  this  manner  a  large  amount  of  valuable 
information  can  be  soon  accumulated.  Experience  is 
a  valuable  teacher,  but  an  expensive  one.  But  when 
experience  can  be  procured  by  proxy,  it  is  like  get- 
ting an  article  as  good  as  new  and  at  a  great  reduc- 
tion on  first  cost.  A  man  may  tell  in  half  a  column 
what  has  cost  him  years  of  experience  to  learn.  The 
writer  has  in  this  way  gathered  three  books  full  of 
the  life  experience  of  others.  The  value  of  such  a 
book  to  its  compiler  is  beyond  estimate. 

RECORD  OF  COWS 

A  book  in  which  to  enter  the  name,  age,  parentage 
and  record  of  each  cow  is  also  indispensable;  such 
data  cannot  be  trusted  to  memory.  A  good  plan  is 
to  have  a  marker  in  the  ear  of  each  animal  with  the 
t'umber  of  the  animal  and  the  owner's  name.  In 
case  of  strays  it  is  a  matter  of  identification  and  en- 
ables the  owner  to  keep  a  correct  record  of  the  ani- 
mal. An  excellent  practice  is  to  have  the  name  and 
herd  number  of  each  cow  placed  over  her  stanchion. 
The  names  may  be  lettered  with  a  stencil  outfit  cost- 
ing about  seventy-five  cents.  In  the  record  book  a 
sufficient  space  under  the  name  of  each  cow  is  needed 
for  any  important  remarks  in  relation  to  her  pro- 
duction and  history. 


1 62  PROFITABLE    DAIRYING 

MEDICINE   CHEST 

The  writer  has  used  a  box  in  the  barn  or  the  house 
to  keep  a  supply  of  standard  remedies  which  he  feels 
may  be  needed  in  case  of  emergency.  The  follow- 
ing is  a  partial  list  of  the  remedies  he  keeps  on  hand : 
Aconite,  laudanum,  Epsom  salts,  ginger,  extract  of 
pokeroot,  iodide  of  potassium,  white  pine  tar,  sulphur, 
saltpetre,  raw  linseed  oil,  extract  witch  hazel,  car- 
bolic acid,  spirits  of  turpentine,  chloral,  vaseline. 

CHOKING    CATTLE 

Every  cattle  raiser  should  at  all  times  have  on  hand 
a  piece  of  stiff  rubber  hose  about  four  feet  long  for 
use  as  a  probang  when  cattle  get  chocked.  When- 
ever any  article  of  food  sticks  in  a  cow's  throat,  a 
piece  of  lard  about  the  size  of  a  hen's  egg  is  intro- 
duced. The  warmth  of  the  throat  will  melt  the  lard 
and  lubricate  the  throat  and  often  enable  the  cow  to 
get  rid  of  her  difficulty.  If  this  fails,  a  device  may 
be  inserted,  or  something  made  for  the  purpose  in 
the  cow's  mouth  to  keep  her  teeth  apart.  The  hand 
and  arm  may  then  be  greased  and  shoved  down  her 
throat  to  remove  the  obstacle.  If  this  is  unsuccess- 
ful, the  probang  may  be  put  into  the  throat,  and  the 
obstacle  pushed  down  to  the  stomach.  This  will 
usually  be  successful.  A  wilted  turnip  is  one  of  the 
worst  things  to  get  into  a  cow's  throat.  The  pro- 
bang  is  about  the  only  remedy.  A  broomstick  or 
other  stiff  article  if  used  for  this  purpose  is  likely  to 
perforate  the  gullet  and  kill  the  cow.  Soap  and  milk 
poured  down  the  throat  will  sometimes  give  relief. 
More  than  a  pint  should  never  be  used. 


GENERAL    HINTS  163 

SKIM-MILK  AS    CALF    FOOD 

The  essential  element  of  food  for  growing  ani- 
mals is  protein.  From  it  are  gathered  the  materials 
that  make  bone,  nerve,  muscle,  blood.  The  food 
must,  however,  contain  sufficient  carbohydrates  to 
furnish  warmth  and  motive  power.  Skim-milk  con- 
tains nearly  all  the  protein  there  is  in  new  milk.  A 
comparison  of  the  fresh  with  skim-milk  shows  what 
is  taken  out  by  skimming: 

Protein    Carbohydrates 

New   milk    .    .    .    . 3.1  13.7 

Skim  milk 3.5  57 

New  milk  is  a  nearly  balanced  ration  for  the  calf; 
skim  milk  is  too  narrow  for  a  full  ration.  The  loss 
of  fat  must  be  made  up  with  some  other  food.  As 
the  animal  is  growing,  added  protein  is  also  impor- 
tant. The  most  direct  method  of  supplying  carbo- 
hydrates is  to  feed  fine  ground  meal.  It  is  better  for 
the  young  calf  if  cooked  before  feeding,  and  then 
thoroughly  stirred  with  the  milk.  After  the  calf  is 
a  couple  of  weeks  old  it  can  assimilate  fine  ground 
meal  if  fed  in  small  quantity.  Oil-cake  meal  soaked 
for  about  twelve  hours  in  five  times  the  quantity  of 
water  readily  mixes  with  the  skim-milk  and  furnishes 
excellent  nourishing  feed. 


CHAPTER  XXIII. 


DAIRY  REMEDIES 

For  Scours  in  calves  is  recommended  equal  parts 
of  extract  of  tannin  and  laudanum.  Other  sug- 
gested remedies  are:  one  dram  deodorized  tincture 
of  opium  in  starch  three  times  a  day ;  one  teaspoon- 
ful  of  powdered  asafoetida  dissolved  in  warm  water 
or  whiskey,  or  fed  in  the  powdered  state  in  scorched 
milk;  a  tablespoonful  pulverized  charcoal  and  mo- 
lasses three  times  a  day. 

For  Malignant  Fouls  the  writer  recommends 
cleaning  the  foot  thoroughly  and  applying  Arabian 
horse  liniment;  it  has  cured  every  case  in  his  herd. 
He  also  recomends  one  pound  white  pine  tar,  put 
in  a  can  with  two  ounces  gunpowder,  two  ounces 
white  vitriol,  two  ounces  saltpetre,  powdered  fine, 
and  a  little  carbolic  acid.  Cleanse  the  foot  thor- 
oughly and  apply  the  preparation.  Repeat  daily 
until  cured.  Cleansing  daily  is  important  with  all 
remedies. 

For  Garget  physic  with  one  pound  Epsom  salts 
dissolved  in  one  quart  of  warm  water,  with  two 
ounces  ginger.  Follow  this  with  one  teaspoonful 
of  phytolacca  (extract  pokeroot)  twice  a  day. 
Bathe  the  udder  with  a  solution  of  one  tablespoon- 
ful of  phytolacca  in  one  pint  extract  witch  hazel,  rub- 
bing it  until  dry.  Keep  the  cow  on  dry  liberal  bed- 
164 


DAIRY    REMEDIES  165 

ding.  In  a  bad  case  give  ten  drops  of  aconite,  night 
and  morning. 

For  Bloody  Milk  use  the  above  remedy.  Give 
powdered  sulphur  and  alum,  one  teaspoonful  daily. 

For  Diarrhea  and  Prolapsus  use  the  above  reme- 
dies, also  an  injection  of  extract  tannin,  starch  and 
laudanum. 

For  Caked  Udder,  rub  the  udder  thoroughly  for 
ten  or  fifteen  minutes  three  times  daily,  with  water 
as  hot  as  the  hand  can  bear.  Rub  dry  and  then 
apply  warm  raw  linseed  oil  freely  with  the  hand. 
The  udder  will  absorb  a  considerable  quantity,  often 
half  a  pint. 

Physic  for  Cows. — From  one  to  one  and  one-half 
pounds  Epsom  salts,  with  two  ounces  ginger,  ac- 
cording to  size  and  condition  of  cow,  dissolved  in 
one  quart  of  water,  is  recommended  for  one  dose. 

Prolapsus  Uteri  (Inversion  of  Womb). — Carefully 
place  a  clean  sheet  under  the  parts  inverted,  if  the 
cow  is  down,  then  wash  and  carefully  cleanse  with 
sponge  or  cloth  and  warm  water.  Push  back  to 
place  with  folded  hand.  Never  distend  the  fingers 
in  the  operation,  as  there  would  be  danger  of  punc- 
ture. If  the  cow  is  in  distress  and  strains  so  as  to 
prevent  crowding  the  parts  back,  give  one  ounce 
chloral.  As  soon  as  straining  stops,  crowd  the  in- 
verted parts  to  place  and  hold  them  there  with  pine 
plug  made  smooth,  with  knob  at  end.  The  plug 
should  be  about  twelve  inches  long  and  two  inches 
thick,  with  cloth  placed  over  the  end.  The  plug  is 
held  in  place  by  means  of  a  heavy  duck  bandage. 
One  or  two  of  these  bandages  should  always  be  on 
hand,  for  when  wanted  there  is  no  time  to  make 


1 66  PROFITABLE     DAIRYING 

one.  The  upper  pieces  pass  over  the  back  and  the 
others  between  the  legs  and  are  fastened  to  a  horse 
collar  about  the  neck,  or  a  strap  about  the  breast. 
When  the  cow  recovers  from  the  effect  of  the 
chloral,  which  is  likely  to  cause  her  to  sleep,  give 
from  one  and  one-half  to  three  ounces  of  laudanum 
according  to  the  size  of  the  cow  and  the  apparent  de- 
gree of  pain.  Take  out  the  plug  once  or  twice  a  day 
and  cleanse,  putting  on  new  rag.  This  should  be  oiled 
or  greased  with  tallow,  sweet  oil  or  vaseline.  Tie 
the  cow  so  that  as  she  stands  her  hind  feet  will  be 
the  highest.  Keep  the  bandage  on  for  several  days 
— as  long  as  there  is  any  evidence  of  straining.  In 
giving  chloral,  mix  it  with  a  pint  of  water.  Repeat 
the  dose  in  half  an  hour  if  necessary  i.o  stop  the 
straining. 

Milk  Fever  is  one  of  the  most  serious  diseases  of 
well-bred  cattle.  None  but  good  cows  have  it.  It 
seems  to  be  most  prevalent  among  grass  fed  cows. 
The  danger  is  greatest  during  June,  July,  August 
and  early  September.  The  cow  should  be  put  in 
the  barn  and  confined  to  dry  hay  feed  for  a  week  or 
more  prior  to  coming  fresh.  A  dose  of  salts  and 
ginger  is  often  given  three  or  four  days  before 
calving,  and  another  immediately  after — that  is, 
within  five  or  six  hours.  A  pail  of  warm  water 
two  or  three  times  a  day  is  given  for  several  days. 
For  several  days  the  cow  should  not  be  allowed  to 
drink  what  cold  water  she  wants. 

The  "Schmidt  Cure." — In  former  days  veterinary 
surgeons  lost  85  per  cent,  of  their  cases.  Recently 
the  Schmidt  cure  has  been  used  with  great  suc- 
cess. Many  report  as  high  as  85  per  cent,  cures; 


DAIRY    REMEDIES  l6/ 

some  90  per  cent.  Soon  after  the  disease  is  de- 
veloped the  throat  becomes  paralyzed  and  the  cow 
cannot  swallow.  If  then  fed  at  the  mouth,  she  is 
likely  to  choke  to  death.  The  pint  cup  used  in  the 
Babcock  test  and  about  three  feet  of  rubber  tube, 
about  the  size  used  with  nursing  bottles,  are  used. 
A  silver  or  rubber  milking  tube  is  inserted  in  the 
free  end.  In  absence  of  this  a  good  quill  will  do. 
After  disinfection  with  hot  water  and  cleansing  the 
hands,  udder  and  teats  with  hot  water,  120  grains 
(two  drams)  iodide  potassium,  are  dissolved  in  one 
quart  of  water  that  has  been  previously  boiled  and 
allowed  to  cool  to  100  degrees.  The  milk  tube  is 
then  introduced  in  each  of  the  teats  and  one-half 
pint  of  potassium  solution  is  injected  by  holding  the 
cup  as  high  above  the  udder  as  the  length  of  the  tube 
will  allow.  The  udder  should  be  milked  dry  be- 
fore the  operation,  after  which  it  should  be  rubbed 
from  the  teat  toward  the  body. 

Just  prior  to  the  publishing  of  this  book,  a  novel 
remedy  for  milk  fever  was  announced  and  has  re- 
ceived recognition  from  the  agricultural  depart- 
ment of  the  United  States,  in  circular  No.  45  of  the 
Bureau  of  Animal  Industry,  issued  by  Dr.  D.  E. 
Salmon.  Many  remarkable  cures  are  credited  to 
its  use.  The  treatment  is  as  follows :  After  cleans- 
ing the  hands  and  the  udder,  and  disinfecting  the 
implements,  a  clean  towel  is  placed  under  the  udder, 
previously  emptied  of  milk.  An  ordinary  bicycle 
pump  with  silver  or  rubber  tube  to  be  inserted  in 
the  teat  is  used  to  fill  each  quarter  of  the  udder  with 
air,  and  a  rubber  band  or  soft  cloth  string  applied 
to  each  teat  to  retain  the  air  By  gentle  massage 


1 68  PROFITABLE     DAIRYING 

the  air  is  worked  through  the  udder.  The  tapes 
should  be  removed  three  or  four  hours  after  the 
cow  gets  on  her  feet.  The  operation  may  be  re- 
peated. When  recovery  is  assured  the  air  should 
be  worked  out  by  the  process  used  in  milking. 

The  progress  of  milk  fever  is  rapid.  If  not  ar- 
rested, the  animal  usually  dies  in  from  ten  to 
twenty-four  hours.  The  symptoms  looked  for  are : 
first,  a  vacant  stare  of  the  eyes,  accompanied  with 
slight  twitching  of  the  muscles.  The  cow  usually 
refuses  food  and  drink.  She  ceases  to  ruminate. 
These  symptoms  are  followed  by  evidences  of 
acute  pain  in  the  body,  weakness  and  staggering 
and  often  actions  suggestive  of  insanity.  The  hind 
quarters  become  stiff  and  inactive  and  the  animal 
goes  down.  She  may  get  up  two  or  three  times,  but 
is  soon  unable  to  get  to  her  feet.  She  bends  her 
neck  toward  the  side.  This  is  a  characteristic 
symptom.  If  she  be  disturbed  she  will  resume  her 
former  position.  When  she  goes  down  remedies  at 
the  mouth  are  useless.  She  cannot  swallow.  Her 
eyes  become  glassy  and  fixed.  This  is  followed  by 
continued  depression.  Unless  relief  is  speedily  had, 
death  follows  in  a  few  hours. 

The  foregoing  remedy  is  the  nearest  a  specific 
for  this  disease  that  has  yet  been  discovered.  After 
the  cow  is  attacked  there  is  little  time  to  seek  the 
druggist  for  the  remedies.  All  this  should  be  ready 
beforehand.  The  faeces,  which  will  be  hard,  should 
be  removed  by  the  hand  and  this  be  followed  by  a 
copious  injection  of  castile  soap  suds.  In  the  ab- 
sence of  that,  soft  soap  suds  will  do.  A  handful  or 
so  of  salt  may  be  added  to  the  gallon  of  soap  and 


DAIRY    REMEDIES  169 

water.  Warm  bran  mash  may  be  given  when  the 
cow  can  eat.  Plenty  of  dry  straw  bedding  is  needed. 
One  part  carbolic  acid  to  one  hundred  of  water 
makes  a  good  disinfectant  to  use  on  the  hands  and 
the  udder  of  the  cow  before  injecting  the  remedy. 

Blackleg. — The  mortality  of  this  disease  is  very 
high.  The  only  remedy  the  writer  has  ever  used 
with  anything  like  success  is  bleeding  freely  in  the 
neck  as  soon  as  the  animal  is  found  to  have  the 
disease.  If  the  blood  can  be  started  and  caused  to 
flow  freely,  recovery  will  usually  follow.  Preven- 
tion by  inoculation  should  be  always  resorted  to  as 
soon  as  the  disease  breaks  out  in  the  herd,  and  the 
afflicted  animals  removed  at  once  from  the  herd. 
The  material  for  inoculation  can  be  obtained  from 
the  state  veterinarian  on  application. 

Stringy  Milk. — In  reply  to  an  inquiry  addressed 
to  the  Pennsylvania  State  Veterinarian,  Dr.  Leon- 
ard Pearson,  of  the  department  of  agriculture,  he 
says: 

"This  abnormality  is  due  to  a  fermentation  caused 
by  bacteria,  which  enter  the  milk  and  produce  a 
change  in  the  milk  sugar,  causing  it  to  become  vis- 
cous. The  infection  of  the  milk  with  the  particular 
organism  which  causes  this  change  occurs  after  the 
milk  leaves  the  cow.  It  is  probable  that  the  stable 
dust  is  infected  with  this  germ,  and  of  course  it 
also  exists  in  the  milk  house  and  upon  the  milking 
utensils.  The  way  to  get  rid  of  it  is  thoroughly 
to  disinfect  the  stables  by  spraying  with  a  5  per 
cent,  solution  of  carbolic  acid  and  then  wash  off  the 
surface  of  each  cow  by  a  2  per  cent,  solution  of  creo- 
lin.  This  is  somewhat  risky  in  cold  weather,  and 


I7O  PROFITABLE     DAIRYING 

should  be  deferred  until  the  conditions  are  more 
favorable.  The  milk  house  or  milk  room  should 
be  thoroughly  disinfected,  and  for  this  purpose  it 
is  well  to  use  formaldehide.  The  utensils,  in  fact, 
everything  that  comes  in  contact  with  the  milk, 
should  be  sterilized  by  boiling  or  steaming  them  in 
a  closed  chest  or  closet  under  low  pressure.  It  may 
be  well  to  repeat  the  course  of  disinfection  two  or 
even  three  times.  If  it  be  persisted  in  there  can  be 
no  doubt  that  it  will  result  in  eradicating  the  dif- 
ficulty." 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 
^CA 


DIGESTIBLE   AND    MANURIAL    MATTER    IN    A   VARIETY    OF 
FEEDING   STUFFS 


Carbo-   Manurial  value 

Protein  hydrates        per  ton 

Corn  silage  at  glazing  i.i  18.2  $1.13 

Alfalfa    hay 10.4  43.0  7.34 

Corn  Stover,  cured     .    .  2.0  34.8  4.13 

Clover  hay 6.4  38.5  7.47 

Millet    hay 4.5  54.7  4.46 

Oat  straw 1.4  45.9  2.89 

Orchard  grass   ....  4.8  45.2  5.35 

Rye  straw 0.6  43.5  2.12 

Timothy    hay     ....  2.9  46.9  4.35 

Wheat  straw      ....  0.6  39.3  2.02 

Buckwheat  straw     .   .  5.2  35.1 

ROOTS 

Carrots 0.9  8.9  .94 

Mangel   wurzels    .    .    .  i.i  5.4  .91 

Potatoes 0.9  15.7  .85 

Rutabagas i.i  8.5  1.04 

Turnips i.o  7.7  .90 

GRAIN 

Corn      6.3  74.9  4.92 

Barley       8.7  69.2  4.74 

Oats      9.2  53.2  6.22 

Peas      1 8.8  53-5  9-04 

Rye 6.4  70.3  5-42 

MILL  PRODUCTS 

Buckwheat  Mids.      .    .  23.7  50.5  14.03 

Corn  meal 5.5  71.1  4.70 

Corn  and  cob  meal     .    .  4.4  66.5  4.31 

Pea  meal 16.8  53.1  9.04 

Wheat  bran      ....  12.0  45.4  10.33 

Wheat  Mids •  12.8  60.9  7.70 

Wheat  shorts   ....  12.2  58.6  7.56 

BY-PRODUCTS    AND    WASTE    MATERIAL 

Brewers'   grain,   dried  16.8  47.1  9.88 

Gluten    feed     ....  19.4  63.3  8.63 

Chicago  gluten  meal    .  27.7  56.9  13.53 

Hominy  chops   ....  7.1  79.5 

Linseed    meal,    N.P.   .  28.9  44.9  16.73 

Linseed    meal,    O.P.  .  29.3  48.5  15.73 

Malt   sprouts      .    .    .  18.6  40.3  11.29 

DAIRY  PRODUCTS 

Buttermilk 2.8  5-O  1-45 

Milk      ........  3.1  13.7  1 .60 

Skim   milk      3.5  5-7  1.69 

Whey 0.8  5-9  -65 

171 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Advance  in  methods 136 

Agitator,  Cream no 

Analyses  of  feeding  stuffs  ....  171 

Appearances  of  dairy  farm  ...  120 

Appliances 143 

BabcockTest 150 

Balancing  a  ration 76 

Barn  The  dairy 122 

Floor 123 

Stanchions 125 

Ventilation 126 

Feed  room 128 

Hospital  stalls 128 

Milk  room 129 

Brand  for  the  product 119 

Breed,  Selection  of  a 56 

Breeding.  Advantages  of  Special  57 

Breeding,   Cross 60 

Breeds  Dairy 31 

Jersey 31 

Guernsey 37 

Ayrshire 41 

Holstein  Friesian 46 

Shorthorn  or  Durham 50 

Butter  Carrier.  Print 158 

Butter  printer 159 

Butter  prints 156 

Butter  workers 143 

Butter  working  and  salting  ...  115 

Calf  feed.  Skim-milk  as 163 

Carbohydrates 77 

Carding  and  brushing 81 

Care  of  milk 93 

Care  of  the  cow 80 

Cattle  choking 162 

Centrifugal  process 94 

Choking  cattle 162 

Churning 112 

Churning  point 103 

Churns  .   .       113 

Clover  and  alfalfa 90 


PAGE 

Cooley  creamer 91 

Cost  of  producing  milk 140 

Cows,  Kicking 139 

Cows,  Record  of 161 

Cows,  Selling 159 

Cows,  Warm  water  for 140 

Cows,  When  to  have  fresh  ....  87 

Cream  agitator no 

Cream  Device  for  ripening  ...  140 

Cream,  Keeping  sweet 101 

Cream,  Ripening  of 99 

Cross  breeding 60 

Dairy  Breeds 31 

Dairy  Butter,  Marketing  ....  118 

Dairy  Cow 63 

Dairy  Cow,  Feed  of  the 73 

Dairy  Farm,  A  Model I 

A  walk  over  the  farm 4 

Soiling  and  Silage 6 

The  Hay  crop 8 

Silage  and  the  Silo 10 

Handling  the  manure n 

Feeding  the  stock 12 

Management  of  the  milk  ...  14 

Stable  management 15 

Water  and  salt 16 

Milking 16 

The  Barn 17 

Farm  buildings 18 

Disinfectants 19 

No  failures 19 

Dairy  farm,  Appearance  of  ...  120 

Dairy,  Importance  of 21 

Dairy  Sire,  Selection  of  the  ...  66 

Dairy  Standard 69 

Dairy,  Weeding  out  the 136 

Dehorning 137 

Eureka  butter  printer 159 

Fat  and  carbohydrates 77 

Feed  of  the  dairy  cow 73 

Feed  room 128 

173 


174 


INDEX 


PAGE  PAGE 

Feeding  Stuffs,  Analyses  of  ...  171  Remedies,  Malignant  fouls    ...  164 

Feeding  the  dairy  cow 138        Garget 164 

Feeds  and  their  value 90       Bloody  milk 165 

General  hints 156  Diarrhoea  and  prolapsus  ....  165 

Gravity  process 93,  97       Caked  udder 165 

Heifer,  The 71       Physics  for  cows 165 

Hospital  stalls 126       Prolapsus  uteri 165 

Ice  houses 147       Milk  fever 166 

Importance  of  the  dairy 21        Schmidt  cure 166 

Keeping  cream  sweet 101        Black  leg 169 

Kicking  cows 139       Stringy  milk 169 

I^adles 145  Ripening  cream,  Device  for  ...  104 

Manurial  value  of  feeding  stuffs .  91    Ripening  of  cream 99 

Marketing  dairy  butter 118    Salt 74 

Medicine  chest 162    Scrap  book 160 

Methods,  Advance  in 136    Selection  of  a  breed 56 

Milk,  Care  of 93    Selling  cows 159 

Milk,  Composition  of 25    Silage 75 

Milk,  Cost  of  producing 140    Silo  and  Silage 132 

Milk  habit 158    Skim-milk 142 

Milk  pails 160    Skim-milk  as  calf  food 163 

Milk,  Physiology  and  secretion  of  22  Special  breeding,  Advantages  of  .  57 

Milk  room 129    Stable,  Temperature  of 82 

Milk,  Skim 142    Stalls,   Hospital 126 

Milking 83    Stanchions 125 

Milking,  Bad  habits  to  avoid  in  .  83    Starter 101 

Milking  stools 149    Temperature  of  stable 82 

Milking,  Waste  in 138    Thermometers 145 

Miscellaneous  topics 136    Tools,  Care  of 147 

Model  dairy  farm,  A i    Value  of  feeds 90 

Name  for  the  farm 119    Veneer  wrapper  boxes 157 

Oats  and  peas 91    Ventilation 126 

Paddles 145    Warm  water  for  cows 140 

Physiology  and  secretion  of  milk  23    Waste  in  milking 138 

Print  butter 121    Water  and  salt 74 

Print  butter  carrier 158    Weeding  out  the  dairy 136 

Protein 76  When  to  have  cows  come  fresh   .  87 

Record  of  cows 161  Working  and  salting  butter  ...  115 

Remedies,  Dairy 164    Wrapper  boxes 157 

Scours 164 


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CANTON,  OHIO.    Dept.  P. 

CLOVERS 

AND    HOW  TO    GROW   THEM 

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demonstrated  so  often  that  it  is  now  admitted  that  the  "  Ohio's"  excel  in 
the  essentials  of  maximum  capacity  with  the  minimum  of  power.  In 

proof  note  this  table : 

No.  14.  Capacity  12  to  15  tons  per  hour  cut  in  half-inch  leng'ths. 

Power  8  to  10  H.  P.  steam. 
No.  17.  Capacity  1 6  to  20  tons  per  hour  cut  in  half-inch  lengths. 

Power  10  to  12  H.  P.  steam. 
No.  19.   Capacity  20  to  25  tons  per  hour  cut  in  half-inch  lengths. 

Power  12  H.  P.  steam. 

Our  own  tests  in  actual  operation  show  the  above  facts.  The  exper- 
ience of  thousands  of  owners  of  "Ohio"  outfits  show  these  same  facts. 
To  make  every  buyer  absolutely  safe  we  back  these  facts  with  a  positive 
and  reliable  guarantee.  In  addition  to  the  sizes  named  above  we  continue 
to  make  Nos.  13,  16  and  18  "  Ohio  "  Self  Feed  Cutters,  equipped  with  either 
Blower  or  Chain  Elevators,  as  the  buyer  may  desire.  The  Self  Feed  on  the 
"Ohio"  increases  the  capacity  33 '/i  percent,  and  saves  66-<  per  cent, 
of  the  labor  required  in  feeding  a  cutter.  Our  patented  "Ohio"  Silage 
Distributor,  which  is  the  latest  and  most  efficient  distributor  made,  saves 
the  expense  of  one  or  more  men  in  the  Silo  when  cutting.  Easily  adjusted 
from  the  ground  so  as  to  distribute  the  cut  material  to  all  parts  of  the  silo. 
Our  Large  Illustrated  Catalogue  will  give  you  a  splendid  idea  of  the 
"  Ohio  "  Cutters,  their  quality  and  advantage.  We  will  mail  you  a  copy 
free  if  you  will  ask  for  it.  Write  to-day.  "  Modern  Silage  Methods,"  the 
latest  and  best  book  on  the  subject,  fully  illustrated  and  covering  the  en- 
tire subject— construction,  planting,  feeding,  results,  etc.,  will  be  mailed 
for  IDC.  coin  or  stamps.  The  "  Ohio's  "  are  manufactured  only  by 

SILVER  MANUFACTURING  CO. 

SALEM,  OHIO. 


Whirlwind]  IIIIIIIIRII 


ENSILAGE  CUTTER 

OR  SHREDDER  I 
Will    be     shipped    to    re- 
sponsible   parties    on   THIS 
POSITIVE  GUARANTEE 
that  it  will  run  with  less  power  I 
and    do    faster    work,    prove  I 
more   convenient  to  use  and 
safer,  stronger  and  more  sim-  I 
pie  than  any  other  BLOWER 
SILO  FILLER  made.    Get 
our  proposition   and  printed  I 
matter. 

WILDER -STRONG  IMPL.  CO., 

MOXBOE,  MICH. 
Box  12 


DISEASES  OF  SWINE 

By  Dr.  R.  A.  CRAIG 

Professor  of  Veterinary  Medicine  at  the  Purdue  University 

A  concise,  practical  and  popular  guide  to  the  prevention 
and  treatment  of  the  diseases  of  swine.  In  discussing  the 
different  diseases,  the  causes  and  preventative  measures  are 
given  special  attention  by  the  author.  The  book  is  conve- 
niently divided  into  four  parts.  Part  I  treats  on  general 
diseases,  their  diagnosis  and  the  methods  of  administering 
medicines.  With  the  discussions  on  each  disease  are  given 
its  causes,  symptoms,  treatment,  and  means  of  prevention. 
The  succeeding  parts  treat  on  Surgical  Diseases,  Infectious 
Diseases  and  Parasitic  Diseases.  All  technical  and  strictly 
scientific  terms  are  avoided,  so  far  as  feasible,  thus  making 
the  work  at  once  available  to  the  practical  stock  raiser  as 
well  as  to  the  teacher  and  students. 

Illustrated.     5x7  inches.     190  pages.     Cloth    ....     $0.75 

ORANGE    JUDD    COMPANY 

439.441  Lafayette  Street  New  York,  N.  Y, 


Modern  Methods 
of  Testing  Milk 
and  Milk  Products 

A  Handbook  Prepared  for  the  Use  of  Dairy  Students, 
Butter-makers,  Cheese-makers,  Producers  of  Milk,  Oper- 
ators of  Condenseries,  Managers  of  Milk  Shipping 
Stations,  Milk  Inspectors,  Physicians,  etc.  ::  ::  :: 

By  LUCIUS  L.  VAN  SLYKE 

Chemist  of  the  New  York  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 

This  book  should  be  in  the  hands  of  every  dairyman,  teacher,  and  stu- 
dent. It  contains  a  comprehensive  discussion  of  the  chemistry  of  cow's 
milk,  embodying  the  most  recently  developed  facts.  The  numerical  data 
given  are  fresh  and  largely  at  first  hand,  representing  American  condi- 
tions, instead  of  being  stale,  miscellaneous  data  taken  from  European 
sources,  so  much  of  which  has  little  application  or  value  for  American 
dairymen.  Some  errors  that  have  been  long  incorporated  in  dairy  litera- 
ture on  the  composition  of  milk  are  here  corrected.  The  publishers  aie 
aware  that  the  author's  long-continued  study  of  the  chemistry  of  milk  has 
made  him  a  recognized  authority  in  this  field,  and  has  peculiarly  fitted 
him  to  treat  this  subject  in  a  satisfactory  manner. 

The  various  methods  of  testing  milk  and  its  products  are  brought  up  to 
date ;  they  are  presented  in  the  most  concise  manner  that  is  consistent 
with  completeness,  clearness,  and  accuracy  :  irrelevant  matter  is  omitted. 
The  aim  has  been  to  include  all  necessary  material  and  omit  all  that  is 
unnecessary. 

After  the  description  of  the  details  of  each  method,  there  follows  a  brief 
summary  in  short,  sharp  statements  that  stick  in  the  mind  and  enable  the 
student  to  grasp  almost  at  a  glance  the  essential  steps  to  be  followed,  and 
the  important  precautions  to  be  observed. 

Considerable  new  matter  is  presented.  The  portion  on  "  Methods  of 
Testing  and  Scoring  Butter,  Cheese,  Milk,  etc.,"  is  a  feature  that  will* 
commend  itself  to  dairy  teachers,  students,  and  inspectors.  Several  valu- 
able tests,  easy  of  execution,  are  given  for  the  detection  of  renovated  butter, 
of  oleomargarine,  and  of  other  adulterants  of  dairy  products.  Methods  are 
given  for  the  determination  of  fat  in  the  milk  powders  which  are  recently 
coming  into  the  market,  and  which  are  destined  to  be  of  great  commercial 
importance  to  dairymen. 

The  chapter  011  the  "  Arithmetic  of  Milk  and  Milk  Products"  is  another 
desirable  feature  of  the  book  which  will  prove  exceedingly  helpful  to 
every  dairy  teacher,  student,  and  worker.  We  believe  that  the  general 
arrangement  of  the  material  in  this  book  is  one  that  will  meet  the  ap- 
proval of  those  who  have  occasion  to  use  it  most. 

Fully  Illustrated,  5x7  inches.     Substantially 
bound  in  cloth.  Price*  75  cents 


ORANGE    JUDD    CO. 

439-441    Lafayette   Street,    -    -         New   York 


Farmer's  Cyclopedia 
of  Agriculture 


A  Compendium  of  Agricultural  Science  and  Practice 
on  Farm,  Orchard  and  Garden  Crops,  and  tbe 
Feeding  and  Diseases  of  Farm  Animals  •  : 

"By   EARLEY  VERNON  WILCOX,  Ph.D 
and  CLARENCE  BEAMAN  SMITH,    M.S 

Associate  Editors  in  the  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture 

HIS  is  a  new,  practical,  and  complete  pres- 
entation of  the  whole  subject  of  agricul- 
ture in  its  broadest  sense.    It  is  designed 
for  the  use    of  agriculturists  who   de- 
sire up-to-date,  reliable  information  on 
all   matters   pertaining  to   crops   and   stock,  but 
more   particularly  for  the   actual  farmer.      The 
volume  contains 

Detailed  directions  for  the  culture  of  every 
important  field,   orchard,   and   garden   crop 

grown  in  America,  together  with  descriptions  of 
their  chief  insect  pests  and  fungous  diseases,  and 
remedies  for  their  control.  It  contains  an  ac- 
count of  modern  methods  in  feeding  and  handling 
all  farm  stock,  including  poultry.  The  diseases 
which  affect  different  farm  animals  and  poultry 
are  described,  and  the  most  recent  remedies  sug- 
gested for  controlling  them. 

Every  bit  of  this  vast  mass  of  new  and  useful 
information  is  authoritative,  practical,  and  easily 
found,  and  no  effort  has  been  spared  to  include 
all  desirable  details.  There  are  between  6,000 
and  7,000  topics  covered  in  these  references,  and 
it  contains  700  royal  8vo  pages  and  nearly  500 
suberb  half-tone  and  other  original  illustrations, 
making  the  most  perfect  Cyclopedia  of  Agricul- 
ture ever  attempted. 

Handsomely  bound  in  cloth,  *p3.5O;    half  morocco 
(v>ery  jrttmptttouj),  £4-.5O,  postpaid 


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